Intersession Period Research Articles

Evaluation of Effectiveness of Self-directed Learning in 2nd Professional Year Medical Undergraduates

Introduction: Self-directed learning (SDL) is one of the recommended teaching–learning methods for Indian medical graduates to become a lifelong learner. Methodology: The study was conducted in 2nd year medical undergraduates. A lecture (Cholinergic Transmission and Cholinergic Drugs) was conducted followed by sensitization of students for SDL method and sharing of SDL topic (organophosphate poisoning). After 3 days, in the 1st SDL session, students were sensitized for SDL topic. A pretest (multiple-choice questions [MCQs] of SDL topic) was administered and resource materials were shared at its end. In intersession period, case-based scenarios, trigger words, and videos were shared in a preformed WhatsApp group. During the 2nd session, facilitators facilitated discussion of the topic in small groups of students using case-based scenarios. Posttest (MCQs) for students and feedback for students and facilitators were administered. Results: Data collected from 61 students showed a statistically significant difference between the means of posttest compared to pretest (standard error: 2.45, P < 0.05, confidence interval – 95%). Posttest scores showed that more than 45% of the students answered correctly 80% of questions, compared to pretest. More than 70% of students and facilitators agreed/strongly agreed that SDL makes topic interesting and effective for teaching/learning and leads to better student–teacher interaction. About 70% of students and 55% of facilitators found that SDL method should be implemented for more topics in curriculum. Learning issues faced by 21 students (need for more information resources, time-consuming method, difficulty in remembering dosage schedule, clinically correlating topic, and language barrier during discussion) were solved by students using of other online and offline information sources, revising the topic and discussing with co-learners. Conclusion: SDL was helpful for students in improving knowledge, communication skills, and analyzing case-based scenarios for any given topic.

#5660 ULTRAFILTRATION RATES IN INCIDENT PATIENTS ON INCREMENTAL HAEMODIALYSIS WITH 1 SESSION PER WEEK: ARE THESE RATES DANGEROUS?

Abstract Background and Aims Most patients start haemodialysis (HD) with a fixed dose of three sessions per week, regardless of their residual renal function (RKF). This schedule is considered “standard HD or conventional HD” and is widely accepted without any randomised controlled trial (RCT) having examined whether other schedules with fewer sessions per week are inadequate or harmful. Incremental HD (iHD), by contrast, adjusts the number of sessions to the RKF, increasing the frequency to compensate for the drop in RKF. While iHD approaches precision medicine by customising the number of sessions, it raises concerns about the risk of under-dialysis and long intersession periods. In the absence of RKF, these long periods are associated with high weight gain intersession (WGI), which leads to high ultrafiltration rates (UF rates). UF rates greater than 10 ml/kg/h are known to be associated with poor prognosis [1]. Pending ongoing RCT [2], our aim is to quantify WGI and UF rates in incident patients on iHD with a single weekly session (1HD/Wk). Method The policy of our Centre is to start with iHD in those patients with RKF and clinically stable. We start with 1HD/Wk if residual urea clearance (KrU) > 4 ml/min/1.73 m2. We moved from 1 to 2, and from 2 to 3 sessions/week, depending on KrU and ultrafiltration rates. We analysed 2777 HD sessions of 66 incident iHD patients, with intersession period ≥ 6 days. Mean age was 73±12.5 years and 73% were male. WGI, rate UF and Blood Pressure (BP) pre- and post-HD were analysed for each session. We calculated the monthly dialysis dose using Soluter Solver (www.ureakinetic.org). We considered an adequate dose if weekly stdKt/v ≥ 2.1 or if EKRU+KrU ≥ 12 [3]. We guided fluid management by bioimpedance spectroscopy (BIS) bimonthly. Results WGI was 1.47±1.3 kg (median 1.4), equivalent to 2±1.5% of patient weight. According to BIS, pre-HD overhydration status was 1.9±1.6 (median 1.6L), similar to WGI. The UF rate, for each session, was 5.03±3.84 ml/kg/h (median 5). 9.1% of the sessions exceeded 10 ml/min/h and 2.6% exceeded 13 ml/kg/h. Pre-dialysis BP was 158±23/78±19 mmHg (median 157/76) and post-dialysis BP was 152±27/76±16 mmHg (median 150/75). RKF measured by urinary volume was 1931±491 ml (median 1900) and KrU was 5,1±1.8 ml/mn/1.73m2 (median 4,8). Dialysis dose was adequate, with a weekly stdK/v of 2,31±0.7 volumes (median 2,23) and EKR+KrU was 14,22±3,7 ml/min (median 13,8). Nutritional status as measured by PCRn was 1,04±0.3 g/kg/day (median 1), LTI index at BIS was 12,1±4,8 kg/m2 (median 12), desirable >10,5, and FTI index was 15±8 kg/m2 (median 14), desirable >7. Conclusion Patients on iHD do not present large weight gains, nor are they subjected to high UF rates, avoiding significant changes in their BP during HD sessions. On the contrary, RKF allows them to maintain a low number of weekly sessions without presenting volume overload, underdialysis or malnutrition.

COVID ENHANCED TEETHING PROBLEMS IN CBME IMPLEMENTATION-OUR EXPERIENCE RELATED TO SDL

Background: Self-directed learning or more precisely SDL is an important part of UG curriculum that can be used at all levels. In this form of education, the student or the learner plays an active role in knowledge, skill, and attitude acquisition. It is a lifelong learning process and requires a student to be familiar with the concepts of self-directed learning. Since it is a newly introduced concept, various challenges were faced while designing and implementing the SDL session. The online teaching due to the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic also added to the teething problems in CBME implementation. Aim & Objectives: To identify the challenges faced and their possible redressal for proper designing of a SDL session and to understand the precise principles of SDL and share it with the faculty members of the department. Methodology: In the personal experience with the MBBS batch while conducting a SDL session it was observed that SDL is confused with self learning as initially the students were given a topic and then asked to prepare it. The personal experience and experience of other medical teachers as well as of the students was taken into consideration. Then several publications on SDL were reviewed to understand the concept, and theories related to SDL were also studied. Results: An exhaustive online search along with discussion with other medical teachers in this regard was very helpful as various doubts got clarified and some facts came into light indicating that concept of SDL is based on experiential and student-centred learning and with stress on higher order cognition. Therefore, the SDL conduct can be designed for two contact sessions and a gap period of few days. The first contact session can focus on introduction and instructions. The intersession period can be designated as the actual learning period for the students. The second contact session can involve debriefing and assessment. Conclusion: The research helped to impart confidence in designing of the SDL session properly and helped to clarify various doubts and we got an in depth understanding of SDL. Hence, we were able to disseminate this knowledge to other faculty members also. Now we can plan the SDL session accordingly.

MS FORMS APPLICATION DURING INTERSESSION TESTING OF PART-TIME STUDENTS

Introduction. According to the organization of the educational process for part-time students of the Faculty of Pharmacy at IFNMU, the academic year can be divided into the session and intersession periods. While studying at the university, the student acquires knowledge either under the guidance of a teacher or independently. Part-time studying at the Pharmacy Faculty involves allocating a significant part of the student's time to self-done training, especially in the intersession period. The student learns the theoretical material from the discipline, which will be discussed in the upcoming period of the session independently and must present the result of the study before the beginning of the session. The form of control of the student's self preparation during the intersession period is the testing of the covered theoretical material of each discipline. Taking into account the need to ensure a certain set of conditions in which the student and the supervising teacher are during this intersession period, there is a need to choose a reliable tool for the implementation of this kind of testing.
 The results. The current state of development of information technologies in education allows automatic control measures of the educational process at a fairly good level. The involvement of highly professional tools in conducting student testing requires significant time investment and specialized knowledge of the appropriate software, both for the teacher who develops such testing, and for the student himself as a user. If to focus on ensuring certain conditions such as online testing; performing automatic assessment and the possibility of checking the mistakes made by the student; identify the student by personal account and manage access to testing; adhere to clear testing intervals; to fill test questions with mathematical formulas, it is worth noting the functions of MS Forms from the Office 365 cloud environment toolset.
 It is known that MS Forms from the suite of tools of the Office 365 cloud environment is mainly used for surveys or collecting the necessary information, but it can also be adapted for testing. However, the functionality of MS Forms is not limited to this only. In this case, the question arises that the form can not only receive answers, but also compare them with the correct ones and make their automatic evaluation.
 Important criteria for choosing a testing environment that is convenient for the student are the ability to take the test for free, without additional software and online. Since IFNMU uses the Office 365 cloud environment in the organization of the educational process under the terms of subscription, it is worth considering the MS Forms tool in this aspect. It will allow every part-time student to take the test in the intersession period remotely.
 However, there are a few disadvantages in the use of MS Forms when testing students in the intersession period.
 Conclusions. The use of tools of the Office 365 environment, namely MS Forms, during the testing of part-time students of the Faculty of Pharmacy allows you to automate the process of conducting control measures of self-studied theoretical material in the intersession period. Despite certain disadvantages, it is still possible to adapt MS Forms to the organization of student testing, taking into account the possibility of coping with current conditions.

The Influence of Physical Condition Level on the Adaptive Capacity of the Organism and Stress Resistance of Students of the Faculty of Physical Education

Topicality. Adaptation to the higher education system is the most problematic type of adaptation. Regular physical activities cause psychological relaxation and help to withstand emotional overload. Physical сondition has a significant impact on a number of student life indicators. Determining the level of physical condition of students-athletes is the first step in substantiating the process of its improvement, and the orientation of changes in their level determines the effectiveness of the educational process at the Faculty of Physical Education. The Purpose of the Research is to identify and analyze the influence of physical condition level on the adaptive capacity of the cardiovascular system, the psycho-emotional state and the stress resistance level of physical culturist students. The Methodology of the Research. The research was conducted at the Lesya Ukrainka Eastern European National University among students of 1–4 year study on Speciality «Secondary Education. Physical Education» (135 persons, including 90 boys and 45 girls) during the intersession period. The experimental phase of the experiment took place during March-April 2018–2019. and included a study of the psycho-functional and emotional status of the research data sample. The Results the Study. It was found that adolescents are characterized by average and above average level of physical condition; the girls have high level of physical condition. A significant group of students with vegetative balance was noted; every third student has a marked vagotonia as a result of economizing the work of the human body at rest. A satisfactory level of adaptive potential was found as typical for 60 % of boys and 88,9 % for girls. It should be considered as a manifestation of long- term adaptive reaction to physical exertion. The average and high levels of the parameters «well-being» and «mood» were established; by the scale of «activity» – it was unsatisfactory for the vast majority of girls and boys. It was found 62,2 % among boys with reduced levels of stress resistance and with an average level – 36,7 % of students; among girls, 57,8 % and 40,0 %, respectively. This situation indicates the presence of stressful situations in the lives of these students and their low resistance to them. The strongest feedback was noted between the level of physical condition and heart rate and adaptive capacity.

Triple Cs of self-directed learning: Concept, conduct, and curriculum placement

Self-directed learning (SDL) is one of the teaching-learning methods that can be used in medical education at all levels. The use of SDL in undergraduate (UG) teaching is becoming common due to the implementation of competency-based education in many countries. The new competency-based UG medical curriculum in India includes lifelong learning skills as one of the major components. The SDL method is reported to increase the lifelong learning skills of students. The concept of SDL is based on experiential learning and its conduct needs proper understanding of the concept. The conduct can include two contact sessions and an intersession or gap period of few days. The contact sessions focus on introduction, facilitation, and debriefing. The intersession period is the real learning period for the students. SDL also includes the use of various assessment methods. All SDL sessions are followed by an evaluation of various stakeholders. Advancements in information technology (IT) and the advent of many innovations in teaching can be aptly used in SDL conduct and evaluation. The present coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has further provided opportunity to use IT in the new normal post-COVID-19 times. Curriculum placement must be done in alignment with other teaching-learning methods. Training of facilitators, availability of resources, and preplanning help in successful SDL conduct. If implemented appropriately, SDL can be a great method to help students in their postinstitute lives.

ДИСТАНЦИОННЫЙ КОМПОНЕНТ В ПРЕПОДАВАНИИ НЕМЕЦКОГО ЯЗЫКА ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ-ЗАОЧНИКОВ ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКОГО НАПРАВЛЕНИЯ

The article discusses the experience of using a Moodle online course in teaching German to correspondence students of pedagogical specialities. The proposed set of exercises allows efficient organization of correspondence students’ unsupervised work in the inter-session period and serves as an additional motivational factor for them. The paper provides recommendations concerning the module structure and potential of a Moodle course for developing students’ foreign-language communicative competence within the framework of their unsupervised work.

Gender differences of alexithymia level in students with non-psychotic psychic disorders

Topicality. Importance of contemporary researches associated with alexithymia at young age is determined by the necessity to change curricula and look for new forms of psychological support directed to social adaptation and harmonious individual development of students. Objective: to examine alexithymia level in students with non-psychotic psychic disorders depending on gender and diagnosis. Materials and methods. During 2015-2017 keeping to the principles of bioethics and deontology a comprehensive examination of 1235 students was conducted. The following methods were applied: clinical, clinical-psychopathological, clinical-epidemiological, clinical-anamnestic, experimental-psychological and statistical. The sample had no significant differences in gender and age composition, place of residence, form of study. The survey was conducted in the intersession period. Alexithymic levels were determined using the Toronto Alexithymic Scale (TAS-26) of G. Taylor. Results. The study conducted has given the following results. Primary examination of a general group found a high level of alexithymia in 204 (16,52%) students, after repeated examination this number was 176 (14,52%) (t=0,61). Analysis of a gender aspect of alexithymia in general sampling found that a high level of alexithymia was mostly peculiar for men – 65 (17,81%) as compared with 139 (15,98%) women. Occurrence of a high level of alexithymia was analyzed among the students with non-psychotic psychic disorders. The patients with neurotic disorders associated with stress and somatoform disorders were found to be the most prone to alexithymia manifestation (F 40.0-48.1) – 55,12%. Those with behavioral syndromes associated with physiological disorders and physical factors were found to be least susceptible (F 50.0-51.4) – 7,87%. Conclusions. Considering a considerable value of alexithymia in the formation of non-psychotic psychic disorders screening is recommended to be made in order to find clinically important levels of alexithymia for young people in the course of planned medical check-ups.

ОСОБЕННОСТИ БИОЭЛЕКТРИЧЕСКОЙ АКТИВНОСТИ ГОЛОВНОГО МОЗГА СТУДЕНТОК ВЫПУСКНОГО КУРСА В ЗАВИСИМОСТИ ОТ ИХ УРОВНЯ ТРЕВОЖНОСТИ

Aim. This article deals with the assessment of the bioelectric activity of the brain in finalyear female students depending on their anxiety level. Materials and methods. The study involved 32 final-year female students in the intersession period and 24 female students in the session period. The amplitude, frequency and EEG rhythm index were established using EEG spectral analysis. We also used the coherent analysis of EEG to reveal connections between different areas of the brain. Results. Higher situational anxiety is characterized by the increased coherence and decreased amplitude of alpha and theta rhythm. The analysis of EEG frequencies demonstrated the differences between the intersession and session periods only for a theta range. Theta activity dominated in female students with lower personal anxiety. In the session period in comparison with the intersession period we registered the highest values of theta rhythm in the frontal lobes in female students with high personal anxiety. Increased coherence was registered mainly in fronto-central and centro-temporal areas of the right hemisphere. In participants with low situational anxiety we established decreased coherence in the left temporal area for alpha rhythm and in the right fronto-central and left fronto-temporal areas for beta rhythm. In the intersession period in girls with low situational anxiety we registered decreased coherence in the left parieto-occipital, left fronto-parietal and right fronto-temporal areas for a beta range and in the right fronto-parietal area for theta rhythm. The most significant theta activity was registered in students with moderate personal anxiety in upper-frontal, central, left parietal, left occipital and right lower frontal areas. Conclusions. For the majority of female students low situational and high personal anxiety were typical for intersession and session periods. Girls with low situational anxiety were characterized by an increase in the amplitude of alpha rhythm during the intersession period and by an increase in theta rhythm in the session period.

DISTANCE COURSE «METHODS OF TEACHING BIOLOGY»: EXPERIENCE OF DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION

The article looks into experience of development and implementation of distance course «Methods of teaching biology» at National pedagogical university of M. P. Dragomanov. Distance learning is basis of a new educational paradigm which determines content and the directions of development of the modern higher school. The regulatory framework of implementation of distance learning in NPU is characterized. Analysis of the theory and practice of methodical training of future teachers on distance learning is made. The directions of use of distance technologies of methodical training of future teachers are determined. The main of them are: organizational support of theoretical training and work (pedagogical) practice for students of full-time course of study; task performance for students’ self – study work of correspondence-course training during the intersession period; organization of educational process of students of distance learning. The distance course «Methods of teaching biology» is part of university – wide project «E-pedagogy». The structure of this course is determined. The features of development of a distance course «Methods of teaching biology» are described. The essence of the leading types of training of an author’s distance course (lecture, consultation, laboratory occupations, testing and students’ self – study work) is disclosed. The basis of maintenance of a course is made by an author’s complex of educational and methodical providing on credit course «Methods of teaching biology», methodics instructive regulations and recommendation. They are created in the process of its own long-term experience of methodical training of the biology teachers at natural – geographical sciences and ecology department of National pedagogical university. The analysis of results of introduction of this distance course is made. The improvement directions of distance course «Methods of teaching biology» are defined: the сluster structure formation of distance course (splitting into two parts: compulsory and elective components), increase in a share of interactive types of occupations and forms of work, differentiation and individualization of students’ self – study work, strengthening of feedback and create of conditions for reflection of future biology teachers.

IMPACT OF EMOTIONAL STRESS ON THE IMMUNE SYSTEM INDICES AMONG RESIDENTS OF RADIATION CONTAMINATED AREAS.

The aim of this research is to study special characteristics of immune system functioning among residents of the areas contaminated with radionuclides, under conditions of additional emotional load. We examined 350 people, including a group of radiation free areas residents (control group, 150 people) and a group of residents living in the areas of enhanced radiation monitoring (IV radiation zone, the density of soil contamination with isotopes (137)Cs 1-5 Ki/km(2), 200 people). All examined are the students of Cherkassy State University, aged 18-24 years, at the time of research didn't have any acute diseases. The role of additional stress factor (additional emotional load) was fulfilled by winter examination session. The first analysis of immune system indices was carried out in the interval between examination sessions, the second 2 after the first exam, the third - after the last exam, the fourth - after two weeks recovery period. Indicators of cellular immunity were determined by immunophenotyping and dyeing on Romanowsky-Giemsa. The level of immunoglbulins in blood serum was determined by radial immunodiffusion on Mancini. The level of cortisol in blood serum was determined-by immunoenzyme method. We determined that leukogram redistribution in favor of granulocyte fractions can be observed in the analyzed group in the intersession period, and also the reduction of the relative and absolute number of lymphocytes expressing antigens CD3, CD5, CD4 and CD 16. Also, all examined had reduced immunoregulatory index CD4(+)/CD8(+) and increased concentration of serum immunoglobulin G. Emotional stress increased earlier revealed tendencies. As a result the relative(23.41±1.01%) and absolute (0.28±0.02x10(9)/) number of T cells with the phenotype CD4(+), and immunoregulatory index (1.04±0.03) reached values lower than homeostatic norm. These indicators also show the longest period of recovery. Dynamics of the analyzed indices in session and recovery periods gives a reason to believe that mechanisms of adaptation and deadaptation are better displayed for thymus-dependent cells. Additional short-term stress factor intensifies immuno-suppression caused by living in radiation contaminated areas, and creates the basis for regular monitoring of health status of the population that suffered from the combined stress and for implementing preventive measures during the recovery period.

Intratester and intertester reliability of the movement system impairment-based classification for patients with knee pain

BackgroundThe methods to standardize the test items used for classification of patients with knee pain based on the movement system impairment (MSI) approach have been established. To our knowledge, no study has concentrated on establishing reliability for proposed classification for knee pain problems. ObjectiveThe aim of the study was to assess intra- and intertester reliability of the knee MSI classification in patients with knee pain. DesignA cross-sectional methodological study. SettingRasul Akram Hospital. ParticipantsNinety-six subjects with knee pain aged 18–65 years. MethodsIn order to examine intertester reliability, all three testers assessed the symptoms, signs and the MSI diagnosis of subjects with knee pain simultaneously. In order to assess intratester reliability, the procedure was exactly repeated after a one-week intersession period. Kappa values and percentages of agreement were calculated to analyze the reliability level. ResultsThe kappa values for intra- and intertester reliability of the symptom items ranged from 0.83 to 1.00 and 0.00 to 0.83, respectively. For the sign items, the kappa values ranged from 0.18 to 1.00 and 0.00 to 0.82, respectively. Finally, the kappa values of intra- and intertester reliability for patients' classification judgments ranged from 0.66 to 0.71, and 0.48 to 0.58, respectively. ConclusionThe results of the present study indicate that intertester reliability for the symptoms, signs and classification judgments of patients with knee pain based on the MSI approach seemed generally acceptable. However, for intratester reliability, lower levels of the system were observed, probably due to different pain levels or pain behavior between test and retest sessions.

THE ROLE OF THE NEWEST INTERACTIVE DISTANCE TECHNOLOGIES IN FORMATION OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE SOCIOCULTURAL COMPETENCE OF PART-TIME STUDENTS IN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITIES

The present article is devoted to the determination of the role of the newest interactive distance technologies in the formation of foreign language sociocultural competence of the part-time technical students. At the beginning of the article the quantitative indexes of time intended for the individual work in the form of tutorial via the Internet, classroom tutorial and on-line conferences are presented. The article introduces the detailed review of interactive methods of learning which can be applied during distant teacher-student cooperation at the intersession period. The analysis of means of teacher-student communication through the Internet is also carried out, in frames of which two kinds of communication (on-line and off-line) are considered. To the first category communication by means of the electronic correspondence, exchange of personal points of view at forums, blogging, communication via teacher’s Web page (site) are referred. The latter includes correspondence with the help of ICQ, Quip, Skype and communication through the Webinar system, the notion of which is assiduously studied in our research. The practical part encompasses the results of the experiment conducted with the students of Welding faculty, Faculties of Physical Engineering and Chemical Technology on the platform of Mikogo on the topic “World Famous Inventors and Inventions”. At the final part of the article we made the general conclusion that the Webinar is really an effective tool to form the foreign language sociocultural competence of part-time students in higher technical institutions. As the prospect of our further investigation the following is defined: carrying out the experiments with greater quantity of participants and more detailed revision of possibilities of Webinar platforms employment while foreign language learning.

Psychophysiological Profile in Dyssynergic Defecation Patients: An Individual and Situational Response Specificity Analysis

The aim of this study was to evaluate the temporal stability and the situational specificity of the intra-anal EMG-activity, as well as the individual specificity of this response in dyssynergic defecation patients. With this purpose, 26 individuals (13 with dyssynergic defecation and 13 without anorectal pathology) participated in two sessions of psychophysiological assessment, with an inter-session period of 1 week. At each session, the EMG-activity of external anal sphincter was recorded under four different conditions (baseline, voluntary contraction, reflex contraction and simulated defecation). The findings provide empirical evidence about temporal stability of the intra-anal EMG-activity, situational specificity of this response and the existence of a specific profile of intra-anal EMG-activity characteristic of patients with dyssynergic defecation.

Hand-Held Dynamometry in Persons with Tetraplegia

To compare make and break techniques for hand-held dynamometry in persons with tetraplegia. We compared the interrater and intrarater reliability, the relative forces, and variability between examiner techniques. Two examiners with no previous hand-held dynamometry training performed hand-held dynamometry on the elbow flexors or extensors of 19 persons with upper limb weakness secondary to tetraplegia, using break and make techniques. Testing was performed in two sessions separated by 10 mins. Simultaneous recording from an electrogoniometer placed across the elbow was obtained for a subset of participants. Break and make techniques both showed intraclass correlation coefficients exceeding 0.9 for interrater and intrarater reliability. The maximum expected difference for 95% of repeated measurements was 3.5 kg, with hand-held dynamometry strength values that averaged 7-11 kg. Average break/make ratios ranged from 1.38 +/- 0.29 to 1.49 +/- 0.37. The electrogoniometric data showed that the two examiners used similar testing technique, and small variations in technique were not associated with significant differences in strength recordings. Make and break techniques for hand-held dynamometry both show high reliability over a short intersession period when performed by inexperienced examiners on weak elbow flexors and extensors.

Reduction of drug self-administration by an alternative non-drug reinforcer in rhesus monkeys: magnitude and temporal effects

Recent studies have shown that non-drug alternative reinforcers reduce drug self-administration. A goal of the present study was to explore factors such as magnitude of the alternative reinforcer and inter-session access to the alternative to identify conditions that lead to optimal reductions in drug intake. To evaluate the effects of increasing the volume/delivery (v/d) of saccharin on oral phencyclidine (PCP) self-administration in rhesus monkeys given continuous access to PCP and saccharin during daily sessions using a behavioral economic analysis. The effects of availability of a saccharin solution during the inter-session period on session PCP consumption in drug-experienced monkeys was also investigated. Subjects had access to PCP (0.25 mg/ml) and either water or saccharin (0.03%) from two drinking spouts under concurrent and independent fixed-ratio (FR) schedules during daily 3-h sessions. The FR requirements for both available liquids were simultaneously increased (FR4-64). The v/d of saccharin or water was increased (from 0.3 ml to 1.2 ml), while the v/d of PCP remained constant (0.6 ml). In a second experiment, subjects had access to water or saccharin and water during the inter-session period (17.5 h) under an FR1 schedule. PCP and water were available during daily 3-h sessions under concurrent FR schedules. The FR for both liquids was increased (FR16-128). PCP intake was reduced at all FRs and magnitude conditions when saccharin (versus water) was concurrently available. Varying the v/d of saccharin only had a modest effect on the extent to which PCP intake was decreased at the higher FR values. Inter-session saccharin availability (versus water) reduced session PCP intake and the magnitude of this effect was also greater at the higher FR values. The magnitude of the saccharin delivery had an effect on PCP consumption at higher FRs, suggesting that economic factors such as high drug cost (FR) and low cost (responses/ml) of the alternative reinforcer (saccharin) interact to produce a maximum suppression of drug intake. Between-session availability of saccharin also effectively reduced drug intake, and it had a greater effect on the maintenance levels of drug self-administration when the unit price of drug was high.

Acquisition of oral phencyclidine (PCP) self-administration in rhesus monkeys: effects of dose and an alternative non-drug reinforcer.

The effects of drug dose and a non-drug alternative reinforcer on acquisition of oral PCP self-administration in rhesus monkeys were examined. Acquisition was studied using three groups of monkeys (seven subjects per group). One group received a low PCP dose (0.0375 mg/delivery) and the other two received a high PCP dose (0.15 mg/delivery). One of the high dose groups had concurrent access to a saccharin solution (0.03% w/v) and water during the intersession (17.5-h) period. Food non-restricted monkeys were initially given access to water under a fixed-ratio (FR) 1 schedule during daily 3-h sessions. Water was then replaced with PCP during the session. The monkeys were then reduced to 85% of their free-feeding body weights and fed before the session, and the FR value was increased from 1 to 2, 4 and 8. Subsequently, food was given post-session and water and PCP were available under concurrent FR 8 schedules. At this final step of the procedure, acquisition of PCP self-administration was considered to occur if PCP intake consistently exceeded water intake. When all three groups were given concurrent access to PCP and water, PCP intake was greater than water intake only in the group of monkeys receiving the high PCP dose. PCP intake increased when water replaced saccharin during intersession in the high PCP dose group. Within-group data revealed that 85.7% of monkeys acquired PCP reinforcement in the group given access to the high PCP dose while only 42.8% acquired in the other two groups. These data suggest that drug dose and presence of alternative non-drug reinforcers affect acquisition of drug self administration in non-human primates.

Establishment and maintenance of oral ethanol self-administration in the baboon.

Abstract A simple and reliable method was developed to study the self-administration of orally available ethanol by baboons. Two baboons were individually housed in a minimally controlled laboratory environment with visual and auditory access to other baboons and to laboratory technicians. The cages were equipped with standard drinking bottles and spouts. Each baboon was fed his entire daily ration of dry food at the same time each morning, at which time a fresh solution was added to the liquid reservoir. Three hours later, the amount of liquid consumed was measured. This procedure generated high rates of water drinking during the 3-h sessions (“food-induced drinking”). Next, the water available during the sessions was replaced by gradually increasing concentrations of aqueous ethanol (0.5–8%, w/v). When 8% ethanol was reached, the concentration was held constant across daily sessions as session feedings were gradually reduced and shifted to 30 min postsession. Eventually, daily test sessions consisted of simply 3 h access to ethanol, and water was continuously available during the 21-h intersession period. Over a range of ethanol concentrations of 8–32%, ethanol intake (g/kg) and blood ethanol levels remained fairly constant, while volumes (ml) of solution consumed were inversely related to the concentration. Finally, an additional liquid spout was added to each cage and the baboons were provided concurrent access to both ethanol (8%) and water during the sessions. The results indicated clearly that ethanol had come to serve as a positive reinforcer for both of these baboons. This simple preparation should be particularly useful in laboratories that are not equipped with the elaborate technology required in earlier described preparations, and might lend itself to the study of orally effective drugs other than ethanol.

Mnemonic factors in a learning process of praying mantids

Adult female mantids ( Stagmatoptera biocellata) learn not to attack a black star figure in movement. The influence of different mnemonic factors in the aquisition, the speed, and/or the retention of this learning was tested. Results demonstrate that learning depends on the number of trials, the span of the intersession period, the presence or absence of a load on the mantid's head, and the greater or smaller constancy in the stimulus presentation. On the other hand, the presence or absence of an intertrial interval seems to have no influence on the process. Mantids without a load on their heads, i.e. without an experimental trick that facilitates learning, can only overcome their strong tendency to attack when two conditions are fulfilled: a massive number of presentations (80 trials, at least) and great constancy in the stimulus presentation. Three principal points are discussed concerning these results: (1) The survival value of these findings. (2) The importance of mnemonic factors to minimize in an experimental design the difference in the learning concomitants between a group that learns and another group which does not learn. (3) The classification of this learning process as a case of negative reinforced conditioning and not one of simple habituation, because there is a punishment effect during every strike due to the load on the mantid's head.