Interscholastic Sports Research Articles

Injury Rates On Fieldturf And Natural Grass For High School Football And Soccer.

PURPOSE: Few studies have compared injury rates on natural grass and FieldTurf surfaces, especially in interscholastic sport populations. Prior studies have not reported differences in injury rates between FieldTurf and natural grass during practice and games in football and soccer. The purpose of our study was to compare the incidence of injury in high school football and soccer on natural grass and FieldTurf surfaces. METHODS: A total of 539 athletes who participated on eight boys' football (283 boys) and sixteen soccer (131 boys, 125 girls) teams in Western Washington were followed between the 1998 to 2001 interscholastic seasons for injury occurrence on FieldTurf and natural grass surfaces. All injuries were reported and verified by an athletic trainer/physical therapist. Injury rates were calculated per 1,000 athletic exposures. RESULTS: Injury rates on natural grass were significantly higher on FieldTurf for football (p<0.0001) and girls' soccer (p=0.0005). Injury rates were significantly higher on natural grass than FieldTurf for practices and games for football (p<0.0001) and girls' soccer (p=0.008). No significant differences were found between natural grass and FieldTurf in head-related trauma for football players (p=0.55). For other body locations, higher rates of knee injury for football (p=0.002) and ankle injury for girls' soccer (p=0.01) occurred on natural grass compared to FieldTurf. By injury type, higher rates of sprains for girls' soccer (p=0.03) and strains for football (p=0.003) occurred on natural grass compared to FieldTurf. By position, for football, higher rates of injury occurred on natural grass than FieldTurf for lineman (p<0.0001) and defensive backs (p=0.03). For girls' soccer, defenders had higher rates of injury on natural grass than FieldTurf (p=0.006). CONCLUSION: The results of this study suggest that a new generation of synthetic turf, FieldTurf, may lower the risk of injury in football and girls' soccer at the high school level. Further studies are needed to compare the risk of injury between the two surfaces in other high school sports like field hockey or lacrosse that also play on these field surfaces. Keywords: FieldTurf, injuries, prospective, high school

On and Off the Field

<p>The involvement of high school students in interscholastic sports has been linked to many positive outcomes, including grades, school attendance, persistence to graduation, positive self concept, and emotional well-being (Lopez & Moore, 2006; Donaldson & Ronan, 2006). Playing sports is also associated with several social values, such as loyalty, dedication, sacrifice, and responsibility (Lumpkin, 2002). However, with more pressure to specialize in a sport at an earlier age, and with year-round access to private coaching and pre-college scouting, the pressures on high school athletes—particularly those with high ability—may be mounting, leaving them vulnerable. The relationship between that student athlete and the high school coach is therefore essential to the student's success. This study examines that relationship and other aspects of coaching high-ability athletes.</p><p>Using a qualitative method, we identified, in a purposive sample drawn from a Midwestern state and using snowball sampling techniques, male and female coaches who exemplified the most highly successful coaches in high school sports. We completed extensive, in-depth interviews with eleven coaches—a sample that was diverse based on the type of sport coached, size of school, and balance of male/female sport and coaches.</p><p>The data clustered in six thematic categories, including the components of effective coaching, pressures on athletes, the gifted vs. the spoiled athlete, gender differences in sport, how coaching has changed, and the role of parents in the lives of high school athletes. Implications for those involved in athletics, especially sports educators, are discussed.</p>

Sports Injuries to High School Athletes With Disabilities

Physical activity in sports comes with an inherent risk for injury. For children with disabilities, their injury risk may be complicated by preexisting disability. However, very little research exists on sports injuries to young athletes with disabilities. To best manage potential injuries to children with disabilities, data on sports injury patterns are needed. The purpose of this study was to measure the frequency of and risk factors for injury to high school athletes with disabilities. A total of 210 athletes from 8 special education high schools that are part of an interscholastic sports league participated in the study. Seven of the 8 schools were followed for 1 season each of basketball, softball, soccer, and field hockey, and 1 school enrolled only during field hockey. Data were collected from coaches on daily exposure sessions (game, practice, and conditioning, as well as length of session), athlete characteristics (disability, gender, age, seizure history, and behavioral problems), and nature of injuries resulting in any type of medical treatment. Thirty-eight injuries were reported among 512 special athletes for a rate of 2.0 per 1000 athlete exposures. Soccer (3.7 per 1000) had the highest rate of injury. More than half of the injuries were abrasions and contusions. Those at highest risk for injury were athletes with autism, athletes with histories of seizures, and starters. Athletes with autism had approximately 5 times the injury rate of athletes with mental disabilities. Athletes with seizures had >2.5 times the rate of injury reported among those with no seizure history. This adapted sports program is a reasonably safe activity for children with disabilities. Nonetheless, findings have important implications for prevention. The preparticipation medical examination may be an excellent opportunity to create special guidelines, particularly for athletes with autism and seizure history.

Opportunity, Involvement, and Student Exposure to School Violence

Exposure to violence, beyond more obvious physical injuries, has long-term emotional and psychological consequences for youth. It should thus come as no surprise that much research has focused on the correlates of youth exposure to violence and victimization. Less attention, however, has been paid to research examining the relationship between school involvement (i.e., extracurricular activities), opportunity, and youth exposure to school violence and victimization. Analyses that draw from the restricted-use Educational Longitudinal Study of 2002 and that use logistic regression analyses suggest some important results. Most notably, involvement in classroom-related extracurricular activities is linked to an increase in victimization, whereas interscholastic sports involvement is related to a decrease in victimization for youth who participate. Besides discussing the findings of this study, this article also underscores the importance of understanding youth exposure to school violence in greater depth.

Collaboration Is the Key to Student Sports Safety

According to the National Federation of State High School Associations, more than 7.3 million secondary school students each year participate in interscholastic sports. Despite this, only 42% of high schools have access to athletic trainers, the first responders when an athlete goes down on the playing field. Schools that have both certified athletic trainers and School Nurses should create a team approach to promote safety as well as healthy athletic participation. If there is no athletic trainer employed at your school, the School Nurse can and should assist the athletic administrators and coaches with health-related issues. Language: en

Bullying Victimization and Extracurricular Activity

ABSTRACT This study investigated the relationships between bullying victimization and students' extracurricular activity and misbehavior. This research examined whether students' engagement in particular school activities increased or decreased the likelihood of being bullied while at school. Data for this research were drawn from the Educational Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002) and utilized the base year's nationally represented stratified sample (N = 7,990). Associations were examined between various activities of 10th grade public school students—including classroom-related activities, club, interscholastic sports, intramural sports, and misbehavior—and their likelihood of being bullied while at school.

Physical activity and adolescent smoking: A moderated mediation model

Background Research has found that physical activity (PA) protects adolescents from smoking initiation and progression, although it is not clear whether all PA is equally protective. Moreover, it is unclear whether the protective effects are direct or indirect through mediating mechanisms (e.g., self-concept, depression symptoms). Purpose The purpose of this study was to assess a sequential mediation model in which moderate and vigorous PA (MVPA) and interscholastic sport participation decrease the likelihood of smoking one year later, indirectly in a sequential pathway through sport competence beliefs (SCB) and depressive symptoms (DS). We were also interested whether interscholastic sport participation or MVPA is most protective, and if males and females differ in the indirect effects. Methods Participants were 384 adolescents (55% male, 96% Caucasian) drawn from a public high school in the North East region of the United States, taking part in a two-year prospective study (grades 10–11) evaluating the relationship between 10th grade physical activity and 11th grade smoking in adolescents. We employed a two-group (male versus female) structural equation model (SEM) to test sequential mediation pathways for significance. Results Only interscholastic sport participation ( β interscholastic sport–SCB–DS–smoking = −0.05, 95%CI = −0.10, −0.01), not MVPA, had a significant negative sequential indirect effect on adolescent smoking through SCB and DS, but only for males, not females. Conclusions The results suggest the effects of interscholastic sport participation on adolescent smoking may depend upon how competent youth feel after participation. Thus, in addition to prescribing organized activity participation, such as interscholastic sport, smoking prevention initiatives could focus on how youth interpret activity experience. Further, the sex difference found suggests that more research is needed to understand what type of organized activity, if any, is most protective for females against smoking.

If an interscholastic sport is not offered for boys (e.g., volleyball), should the boys be allowed to participate on the girls' team?

If an interscholastic sport is not offered for boys (e.g., volleyball), should the boys be allowed to participate on the girls' team?

Unnecessary Roughness? School Sports, Peer Networks, and Male Adolescent Violence

This article examines the extent to which participation in high school interscholastic sports contributes to male violence. Deriving competing hypotheses from social control, social learning, and masculinity theories, I use data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to test if (1) type of sport and (2) peer athletic participation, contribute to the risks of male serious fighting. Contrary to social control expectations, analyses suggest that athletic involvement fails to inhibit male violence. Moreover, there is a strong relationship between contact sports and violence. Football players and wrestlers, as opposed to baseball, basketball, tennis, and other athletes, are significantly more likely than nonathletic males to be involved in a serious fight. Additionally, the direct effect of football is explained by the football participation of individuals' peers. Males whose friends play football are more likely to fight than other males, supporting perspectives that emphasize peer contexts as important mediators. Overall, findings are consistent with the expectations of social learning and masculinity arguments. The theoretical and policy implications of these results are discussed.

Physical Education and Physical Activity: Results From the School Health Policies and Programs Study 2006

Comprehensive school-based physical activity programs consist of physical education and other physical activity opportunities including recess and other physical activity breaks, intramurals, interscholastic sports, and walk and bike to school initiatives. This article describes the characteristics of school physical education and physical activity policies and programs in the United States at the state, district, school, and classroom levels. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention conducts the School Health Policies and Programs Study every 6 years. In 2006, computer-assisted telephone interviews or self-administered mail questionnaires were completed by state education agency personnel in all 50 states plus the District of Columbia and among a nationally representative sample of districts (n=453). Computer-assisted personal interviews were conducted with personnel in a nationally representative sample of elementary, middle, and high schools (n=988) and with a nationally representative sample of teachers of required physical education classes and courses (n=1194). Most states and districts had adopted a policy stating that schools will teach physical education; however, few schools provided daily physical education. Additionally, many states, districts, and schools allowed students to be exempt from participating in physical education. Most schools provided some opportunities for students to be physically active outside physical education. Staff development for physical education was offered by states and districts, but physical education teachers generally did not receive staff development on a variety of important topics. To enhance physical education and physical activity in schools, a comprehensive approach at the state, district, school, and classroom levels is necessary. Policies, practices, and comprehensive staff development at the state and district levels might enable schools to improve opportunities for students to become physically active adults.

From High School Jocks to College Grads

Various studies show that interscholastic sport participants, and specifically female athletes, enjoy numerous educational benefits at the high school level. Because of the influx in the number of females engaging in high school sport that has occurred during the past 30 years, few studies have been able to adequately assess whether females' involvement in interscholastic sport has any long-term consequences. In this study, the authors examine whether females who participated in high school athletics are more likely to graduate from college than are their counterparts. The authors use data from the National Education Longitudinal Study and employ multilevel models with random effects. They find that females who engage in interscholastic high school sport have higher odds of completing college than do their counterparts.

Policies and Opportunities for Physical Activity in Middle School Environments

This study examined physical activity opportunities and barriers at 36 geographically diverse middle schools participating in the Trial of Activity for Adolescent Girls. Principals, physical education and health education department heads, and program leaders were interviewed to assess policies and instructional practices that support physical activity. Schools provided approximately 110 hours per year in physical education instruction. Approximately 20% of students walked or bicycled to school. Eighty-three percent of schools offered interscholastic sports and 69% offered intramural sports. Most schools offered programs for girls, but on average, only 24 girls ( approximately 5%) in the schools attended any programs. Only 25% of schools allowed after school free play. An overall score created to assess school environmental support for physical activity indicated that, on average, schools met 6.7 items of 10 items. Free/reduced lunch program participation versus not (p = .04), perceived priority of physical education instruction over coaching (p = .02), and safety for walking/bicycling to school (p = .02) predicted environmental support score. Schools have policies and practices that support physical activity, although unfavorable practices exist. Schools must work with community partners and officials to provide environments that optimally support physical activity, especially schools that serve low-income students.

Re-Examining the Relationship between Interscholastic Sport Participation and Delinquency: Type of Sport Matters

For years it has been commonly held by the public and by policy makers that youth sport participation can serve as an agent of social control. At the school level, this relationship has been examined in terms of numerous psychosocial and behavioral outcomes. Research on one such outcome - delinquency - has resulted in mixed findings. To better understand this association and perhaps arrive at more conclusive findings, the present study utilizes nationally representative data (NELS: 88) to conduct a more in-depth analysis of the relationship between school sport participation and delinquency. We present findings from a systematic analysis of engagement in delinquency that 1) controls for race, gender, and SES, 2) takes into account important factors representing components of Hirschi's (1969) social control theory found both inherent in sport participation and external to it, and 3) compares different delinquency outcomes for different types of sport. Results confirm the complexity of the sports—delinquency relationship, as both the direct and mediating effects of social control vary by type of sport.

Medical and Legal Issues in the Cardiovascular Evaluation of Competitive Athletes

Healthy-appearing competitive athletes may harbor unsuspected cardiovascular disease with the potential to cause sudden death. This fact raises issues of physician responsibility in preparticipation screening and eligibility/disqualification decisions. A number of medical-legal cases now represent a framework for screening and eligibility decision making in high school and college athletes. Physicians screening competitive athletes should strictly adhere to recommendations from the American Heart Association. Precedent exists for disqualifying athletes with heart disease from competition to prevent unnecessary exposure to risk of injury or death. By virtue of the court decision in Larkin v Archdiocese of Cincinnati, high school students with heart disease have no compelling right to participate in interscholastic sports without medical clearance. In Knapp v Northwestern University, an appellate court ruled that college athletes can be medically disqualified from sports and supported the use of national association medical guidelines by team physicians in formulating eligibility/disqualification decisions. This medical-legal analysis provides guidelines for physicians participating in medical evaluations of competitive athletes by clarifying the standard of care, potential pitfalls, and the evolving liability associated with this clinical practice.

Organizational justice and commitment in interscholastic sports

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of three organizational justice dimensions on the commitment of high school student athletes (N = 480) to continue playing a referent sport. The athletes were asked to complete an instrument designed to assess their perceived levels of justice displayed by their coaches in three justice dimensions—procedural justice, distributive justice and interpersonal justice. The findings indicated that justice perceptions did significantly (p < 0.05) influence their intent to continue playing a specific sport. Further analyses found fairness perceptions differed significantly (p < 0.05) when considering the students’ grade level, gender and referent sport, while no differences existed based upon the race of the student athletes. These findings provide insight into organizational justice in sport.

UNEVEN PLAYING FIELDS: STATE VARIATIONS IN BOYS' AND GIRLS' ACCESS TO AND PARTICIPATION IN HIGH SCHOOL INTERSCHOLASTIC SPORTS

Using 2000 aggregate Office of Civil Rights (OCR) data combined with demographic and contextual data from National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES); this paper finds gender parity in only a handful of states, wide variation among states in girls and boys access to single-gender interscholastic sports and teams, and that states vary widely in patterns of participation in single-gender sports activities. Regression analyses suggest that gender disparities in athletic participation opportunities among states is associated with states per pupil expenditures and student racial composition. Gender disparities in single-gender athletic participation rates among states are strongly associated with participation opportunities as well as per pupil expenditures and student racial and composition.

Re-examining the role of interscholastic sport participation in education.

The purpose of the present study was to examine the relationships of interscholastic sports participation with locus of control, self-concept, cognitive test scores, and school dropout in adolescents via a secondary analysis of National Educational Longitudinal Study 1988 (NELS:88). Subjects were 1,883 students who completed all measurements in 8th grade (1988), at Follow-up 1 (10th, 1990), and Follow-up 2 (12th, 1992). Scales utilized to measure locus of control, self-concept, and cognitive ability were developed by the National Center for Educational Statistics. Dropout was assessed through school records and contact with participants. At baseline and Follow-up 1, students self-reporting sport participation displayed higher self-concept and locus of control; however, these differences were no longer observed at Follow-up 2. Drop-out rate for boys at Follow-up 2 was significantly lower for students reporting interscholastic sport participation at baseline or at Follow-up 1. Similarly, drop-out rate for girls at Follow-up 2 was significantly lower for students reporting interscholastic sport participation at baseline or at Follow-up 1. These findings support the presumed positive role of sport participation for adolescents in American schools.

NAGWS: Core Values through the Years

The National Association for Girls and Women in Sport (NAGWS) began in 1899 and has continued to positively impact society through many name and structure changes. Core values have always guided NAGWS in its broad mission to increase participation and leadership opportunities for girls and women. NAGWS' role in the fight for female equality has evolved through societal changes and changing attitudes toward women in sport. However, the core values reflected in for girl and woman, and girl and woman in a sport have remained. First 100 Years In the 1800's professionals believed that women were not physically strong enough to survive the rigors of college. The introduction of physical education and hygiene courses helped make female college attendance acceptable. By the 1900's, and formal exercise dominated both women's and men's physical education programs. Men's athletics, organized by students without administrative sanction, resulted in a division between men's physical education and athletics. In contrast, women's developed within the educational context. Because female physical educators had control of women's athletics, core educational philosophies and values remained similar for class instruction, intramural, and extramural sports. In 1892, basketball was introduced at Smith College, and it rapidly became popular among women students. Schools and colleges began printing their own rules, which resulted in different rules appearing nationwide. In response, in 1899, the American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education (AAAPE) appointed the Women's Basketball Rules Committee to write one set of rules. This rule-making body was the forerunner of NAGWS. Through a succession of name and structure changes, this group assumed responsibility for women's rules, officiating, and governance for many sports. Educational values guided the philosophy of proper behavior and appropriateness of competition. As intercollegiate competition progressed, many female physical educators became concerned about the problems they saw with men's athletics and began substituting intramural programs. However, girls' basketball thrived in small towns. These games, played mainly outside the educational system, generally had little crowd control, poor sportsmanship, and excessive roughness. This brought condemnation of interscholastic from both physicians and physical educators. Controversy continued over control of women's athletics. Between 1917 and 1957, NAGWS experienced four name and structure changes. Although women leaders promoted for girls and women, they objected to intensive training for the few and the exploitation of athletes. The following values dictated the direction for girls and women's for the next half century: every girl in a and a for girl, play for play's sake, and qualified women in immediate charge of athletic and other physical activities. During this time, two popular types of participation were play days and sports days. Although structurally different, the emphasis for both was on fun and social development. However, varsity competition that remained popular in some parts of the country was usually administered outside of this structure. In addition, some women leaders began to endorse intercollegiate contests. In 1957, Division for Girls' and Women's Sports (DGWS) evolved. Earlier philosophy and values continued, but with added recognition of the highly skilled. Interscholastic and intercollegiate were accepted as extensions of the instructional or intramural programs. The new pyramid model of athletics included highly competitive opportunities for girls and women as long as educational values remained primary. DGWS supported agencies with similar values that fostered elite competition. The Commission for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (CIAW) was organized in 1967 as a substructure of DGWS to control intercollegiate sports, while the National Federation of State High School Associations was recommended to control interscholastic sports. …

The Whole IX Yards: The Impact of Title IX: The Good, the Bad and the Ugly

It is an honor to be selected to present Eastern District Association Margaret Paulding Lecture on this, 10th year anniversary of its inception. I have always had highest respect for members of Eastern Association for Physical Education of College Women (EAPECW) and their commitment to support women in our profession. (1) While I did not know Margaret Paulding directly, I spoke with colleagues who knew her of who were involved in establishing this lecture series. (2) What they all told me was that Margaret was not flashy or set on getting herself or her name in limelight. She was a strong woman whose life and work were committed to principles of EAPECW. She was respected by all who knew her and represented a generation of women who worked to establish highest standards and practices for our profession. It seems fitting today that my presentation will focus on Title IX, a law that has opened so many doors for women in sport and beyond. I have to admit that I borrowed title (or at least a part of it) from two of my graduating seniors who I had pleasure to work with this fall. These two young women did a comprehensive review of Title IX as an independent under my direction. The Whole IX Yards was their working title. I did get their permission to use it though ... which they really got a kick out of. On my own I added, the Good, Bad and Ugly as it seemed so very appropriate as this fall I watched with great concern as a government appointed Commission began to review a law that is one of most important pieces of legislation of this century. It is my intent here to complete a brief review of impact of Title IX on girls and women in sport. Second, I will discuss process followed by Commission on Opportunities in Athletics to review Title IX. Finally, I will share my concerns about final report of Commission and what advocacy efforts need to be implemented to maintain and strengthen Title IX. Let's start by looking at the Good. Title IX of Education Amendments of 1972 is federal law that prohibits sex discrimination in education. It states: No person in United States shall, on basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied benefits of or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance. (20 U.S.C. Section 1681-1687, 1988). It is not a surprise to most people that throughout history women have been discriminated against in our society. There was a time when women were denied right to vote, own property if they were married, attend elite colleges and universities and become trained in many professions. With passage of Title IX in 1972, many doors previously closed to women were opened. In 1972, 44 percent of all bachelors' degrees were earned by women, as compared to 57 percent in 2002. During that same period number of women earning medical degrees increased from 9 to 43 percent. Finally, percentage of women earning degrees in predominately males fields of study increased significantly from 1971-72, to 1996-97. 'In some areas, women now outnumber men (U.S. General Accounting Office, 2002). Title IX also brought about major changes in athletic opportunities available for girls and women at all levels. During 1971-72 academic year, 29,977 females participated in collegiate sport. Twenty--nine years later in 2000-01, that number increased by over 400% to reach 150,916. What is interesting to note is 36% participation rate increase for men in collegiate sport from 1971-72 to 2000-01. And today, college females still have 58,000 (38%) fewer opportunities to participate in intercollegiate sport than their male counterparts (NCAA, 1982,2001). Similar increases are shown at high school level with 294,015 girls participating in interscholastic sport in 1971-72 and 2,784,154 participating in 2000-01. …

Using a Content Analysis to Examine the Gendering of Sports Newspaper Personnel and Their Coverage

The purpose of this study was to determine if the coverage given to female and male interscholastic athletics was a function of the gender of the individuals who make up newspaper sports departments. The degree to which males controlled and dominated the newspaper coverage of interscholastic sports was also assessed. The study revealed, from the examination of 1792 articles and 827 photographs, that the newspaper media was clearly the domain of males who made up 91.4% of the reporters, 78.6% of the photographers, 100% of the executive sports editors, and 91.3% of the high school sports editors. The study further determined that there was no association between the gender of the newspaper personnel and the amount of coverage given to female and male interscholastic athletics. Female and male reporters, photographers, and editors were found equally responsible for the under-represented coverage of girls' interscholastic athletics.