Interpersonal Trauma Exposure Research Articles

Alcohol consumption, interpersonal trauma, and drinking to cope with trauma-related distress: An auto-regressive, cross-lagged model.

Alcohol consumption and interpersonal trauma (IPT) co-occur at high rates, particularly in college populations. Two non-mutually-exclusive theories of this comorbidity are the risky behavior model, suggesting that substance use increases likelihood of IPT, and the self-medication model, suggesting that individuals use substances to cope with trauma-related symptoms. Few have simultaneously tested these theories in a sample of college students. Thus, the overarching aim of this longitudinal study (n = 1320) was to identify whether alcohol consumption and IPT are associated with one another, and if IPT and/or posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) impacts use of alcohol to cope with trauma-related distress. Data were collected from a longitudinal study of college students attending a large public university. Participants in the current study were on average 18.46 years old at study entry, primarily female (70%), and of diverse racial/ethnic backgrounds (e.g., 49.4% White, 19.7% Black, 17.2% Asian). Results from auto-regressive, cross-lagged models indicated that alcohol consumption preceded IPT exposure. In contrast, IPT was not prospectively associated with alcohol consumption. Those reporting probable PTSD, but not IPT, reported more use of alcohol to cope with trauma-related distress. These findings provide support for the risky behavior model, indicating that those with higher levels of alcohol consumption may be a vulnerable group in terms of likelihood of IPT. Findings also suggest that those reporting probable PTSD may be at risk for use of alcohol to cope with trauma-related distress. Implications of these findings, in light of study limitations, are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Interpersonal Trauma Exposure and Depression in Young Adults: Considering the Role of World Assumptions.

The transition to young adulthood confers heightened risk for depression, and exposure to interpersonal trauma (IPT) can magnify this risk. However, not all IPT-exposed young adults develop depressive symptoms, and not all young adults with depressive symptoms report past IPT, suggesting a need to identify moderators of the IPT-depression link. This study investigated whether four different world assumptions-core beliefs about the nature of the world-moderated the association between IPT exposure and depressive symptoms in college students (N = 1,084, M age = 19.5, 74.1% female). Participants self-reported IPT exposure, depressive symptoms, and world assumptions via an online survey. We predicted that the IPT-depressive symptom association would be weaker among young adults with more positive assumptions about the safety of the world, trustworthiness of people, predictability of people, and controllability of events, versus those with more negative world assumptions in these domains. Hierarchical regression results supported this prediction with respect to one world assumption type: more positive beliefs about the world's safety significantly attenuated the relation between past IPT exposure and present depressive symptoms, ΔF(1, 1061) = 9.54, ΔR2 = 0.01, p = .002. The IPT-depressive symptom link was over 3 times as strong for young adults with weak "world-is-safe" assumptions, versus those with strong "world-is-safe" assumptions. No other world assumption types emerged as moderators. Lay theories of the world's safety may represent a basic, survival-oriented belief with implications for depressive symptoms following safety threats, such as IPT. Addressing "world-is-safe" assumptions may enhance depression prevention efforts for IPT-exposed young adults.

Interpersonal Trauma Exposure, Trauma Symptoms, and Severity of Substance Use Disorder among Youth Entering Outpatient Substance Abuse Treatment.

A substantial body of literature has found associations between interpersonal victimization, trauma symptoms, and substance use disorders (SUD) among adolescents. Secondary data analysis was conducted on structured interview data collected by treatment providers as 172 adolescents (ages 12-19) entered outpatient substance abuse treatment. Results indicate high prevalence rates of interpersonal trauma exposure: 71.5% self-reported trauma exposure, specifically direct physical abuse or assault, sexual abuse or assault, and/or witnessing intimate partner violence of a parent. Severity of SUD, as measured by number of DSM-5 criteria endorsed, was not only associated with the number of types of criterion A events for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder but also more self-reported internalizing problems. There was no significant relationship between the severity of SUD and the severity of trauma symptoms at treatment intake, gender, or attention problems. Ongoing assessment of possible trauma symptoms is recommended throughout substance abuse treatment with youth who have reported trauma exposure, as well as continued screening of trauma exposure.

40.1 Psychiatric Disorders in Youth Exposed to Trauma: Complexity and Synergy

The prevalence of childhood trauma and adversity is such that it is unfortunately “not outside the realm of usual human experience,” necessitating the removal of this specific phrase from what was the previous criterion A of PTSD in the DSM-III-R. Child trauma and adversity can often occur via multiple trauma types and of varying chronicity. Children who have presented with some of the most complex forms of mental illness had chronic interpersonal trauma exposures (eg, child abuse, domestic violence, community violence, refugees of war). These exposures are such that their normal development is disrupted by traumatic stress, neurobehavioral issues, and functional problems that lead to significant psychiatric morbidity.

Cumulative childhood interpersonal trauma is associated with reduced cortical differentiation between threat and non-threat faces in posttraumatic stress disorder adults.

Posttraumatic stress disorder and childhood trauma frequently co-occur. Both are associated with abnormal neural responses to salient emotion stimuli. As childhood trauma is a risk factor for posttraumatic stress disorder, differentiating between their neurophysiological effects is necessary to elucidate the neural pathways by which childhood trauma exposure contributes to increased posttraumatic stress disorder risks. Face-specific N170 evoked response potentials for backward-masked (non-conscious) and conscious threat (fear, angry) and non-threat (happy) faces were measured in 77 adults (18-64 years old, 64% women, 78% right-handed) symptomatic for posttraumatic stress disorder. Differences in N170 peak amplitudes for fear-versus-happy and angry-versus-happy faces at bilateral temporo-occipital (T5, T6) sites were computed. The effect of cumulative exposure to childhood interpersonal trauma, other childhood trauma, adult trauma, depression and posttraumatic stress disorder symptom severity on the N170 response was assessed using hierarchical multiple regression analyses. T5 N170 peak amplitudes for non-conscious fear-versus-happy faces were inversely related to cumulative childhood interpersonal trauma after accounting for socio-demographic, clinical symptom and other trauma factors. Posttraumatic stress disorder Avoidance was positively associated with N170 peak amplitudes for non-conscious fear-versus-happy faces, primarily due to reduced N170 responsivity to happy faces. Childhood interpersonal trauma exposure is associated with reduced discrimination between fear and happy faces, while avoidance symptom severity is associated with dampened responsivity to automatically processed happy faces in posttraumatic stress disorder adults. Results are discussed in terms of the likely contributions of impaired threat discrimination and deficient reward processing during neural processing of salient emotion stimuli, to increased risks of posttraumatic stress disorder onset and chronicity in childhood interpersonal trauma-exposed adults.

Posttraumatic Overmodulation, Callous–Unemotional Traits, and Offending Among Justice-Involved Youth

ABSTRACTA large body of research has demonstrated an association between childhood trauma exposure (TE) and adolescent delinquency. This association may be explained by callous–unemotional (CU) traits, which may stem from TE and are associated with persistent offending and recidivism. However, research on the mechanisms underlying TE and delinquency has lacked specificity regarding the posttraumatic symptoms that may drive this effect, particularly new models that distinguish between posttraumatic symptoms (PTS) of overmodulation versus undermodulation. This article sought to investigate the role of overmodulation in the association between TE and CU traits and their relations with persistent offending. Participants included 829 detained youth who completed self-report measures of TE, PTS, and CU traits. Official records of youth offenses were also obtained. Results of path analyses demonstrated that the association between interpersonal TE and persistent offending exhibited an indirect effect through overmodulation and CU traits. Efforts to address overmodulation among traumatized detained youth may represent a promising avenue of intervention for reducing recidivism.

Interpersonal Trauma and Physical Health Symptoms in College Students: Mediating Effects of Substance Use and Self-Blame

ABSTRACTThe present study examined the mediating effect of two coping mechanisms (substance use and self-blame) on the relationship between interpersonal trauma (IPT) exposure and self-reported physical health symptoms in college students. Participants included 365 trauma-exposed college students. We used multigroup structural equation modeling to test our hypothesized model and to determine whether the hypothesized relationships were moderated by gender. Results indicated that IPT exposure was associated with increased substance-use coping and self-blame. These two coping mechanisms, in turn, predicted increased physical health symptoms. The results of the moderation analysis indicated no significant gender differences in the hypothesized relationships.

Developing an Emotion- and Memory-Processing Group Intervention for PTSD with complex features: a group case series with survivors of repeated interpersonal trauma

ABSTRACTIndividuals who experience repeated interpersonal trauma exposure often present with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) with more complex features. There is currently no consensus regarding whether current evidence-based interventions for PTSD need to be tailored to better account for these complex features. However, one recommended adaptation is to adopt a phase-based or sequenced approach involving three phases, each with a distinct function. This paper describes the development of a 12-session Emotion- and Memory-Processing Group Programme, adapted from Cloitre’s Skills Training in Affective and Interpersonal Regulation (STAIR) phase-based treatment protocol. A single case series provided a preliminary examination of the group-based intervention’s efficacy for three groups of women with a history of repeated interpersonal trauma and PTSD with complex features (N = 15; age 19–46 years) at The Haven Sexual Assault Referral Centre in London. Results revealed significant reductions in: PTSD, complex features of PTSD, and depression, along with improvements in process measures of maladaptive cognitions and emotion processing. Results from this case series demonstrate that an Emotion- and Memory-Processing Group Programme holds promise for treating individuals with a history of interpersonal trauma in outpatient settings, and provides evidence to warrant the completion of a feasibility trial.

Interpersonal trauma and hoarding: The mediating role of aggression

BackgroundA growing body of literature indicates that exposure to interpersonal trauma contributes to the onset or exacerbation of hoarding symptoms. However, little research has explored psychosocial factors that may help to explain the relationship between interpersonal trauma and hoarding symptoms. One outcome of trauma exposure that may be associated with hoarding symptoms is aggression, defined as the tendency to experience and express hostility and anger, and to engage in aggressive behavior. Therefore, the current study examined the relationship between hoarding and aggression, as well as the mediating role of aggression in the relationship between exposure to interpersonal trauma and hoarding symptoms. MethodsCommunity participants (n = 258) completed a battery of questionnaires assessing trauma exposure, hoarding symptoms, aggression, and negative affect. ResultsResults revealed that when accounting for negative affect, hoarding symptoms were associated with greater aggression, and the relationship between exposure to interpersonal trauma and hoarding symptoms was mediated by aggression. Specificity analyses indicated that depression symptoms and emotion dysregulation did not mediate the relationship between interpersonal trauma exposure and hoarding, providing further support for the importance of aggression. LimitationsFindings should be interpreted in light of limitations, including the use of cross-sectional and self-report data, and a general community sample. ConclusionsTaken together, our findings suggest that interpersonal processes, such as aggression toward others, may be associated with increased hoarding symptoms.

Developmental timing of trauma exposure and emotion dysregulation in adulthood: Are there sensitive periods when trauma is most harmful?

BackgroundThis study aimed to determine whether there were sensitive periods when a first exposure to trauma was most associated with emotion dysregulation symptoms in adulthood. MethodsAdult participants came from a public urban hospital in Atlanta, GA (n = 1944). Lifetime trauma exposure was assessed using the Traumatic Events Inventory (TEI). Multiple linear regression models were used to assess the association between the developmental timing of first trauma exposure, classified as early childhood (ages 0–5), middle childhood (ages 6–10), adolescence (ages 11–18), and adulthood (ages 19+), on adult emotion dysregulation symptoms, measured using the abbreviated Emotion Dysregulation Scale. ResultsParticipants exposed to trauma at any age had higher emotion dysregulation scores than their unexposed peers. However, participants first exposed to child maltreatment or interpersonal violence during middle childhood had higher emotion dysregulation scores relative to those first exposed during other developmental stages; these developmental timing differences were detected even after controlling for sociodemographic factors, exposure to other trauma, and frequency of exposure to trauma. Further, after controlling for current psychiatric symptoms, the effect of other interpersonal trauma exposure in middle childhood was diminished and first exposure to other interpersonal violence in early childhood was associated with significantly lower emotion dysregulation symptoms. LimitationsLimitations of this study include the use of retrospective reports and absence of complete information about trauma severity or duration. ConclusionThese findings should be replicated in other population-based samples with prospective designs to confirm the importance of developmental timing of trauma on later emotion dysregulation.

Trauma exposure, incident psychiatric disorders, and disorder transitions in a longitudinal population representative sample

Heterotypic continuity, whereby individuals transition from one disorder to another, is common; however, longitudinal studies examining transdiagnostic predictors of heterotypic continuity are lacking. The current study examined whether trauma exposure during childhood (maltreatment) and adulthood (interpersonal and non-interpersonal trauma) is associated with heterotypic continuity in a national sample. Men and women (N = 34,653) who participated in Waves 1 (2001–2002) and 2 (2004–2005) of the National Survey of Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC) completed face-to-face interviews about trauma exposure and psychopathology. Risk ratios and population attributable risk proportions (PARPs) quantified the effects of childhood maltreatment and interpersonal and non-interpersonal trauma exposure between Waves 1 and 2 on risk for incident disorders and transitions between specific types of disorders. Twenty percent of respondents reported a Wave 2 incident disorder. Those with any Wave 1 disorder were at increased risk of incident mood (RR range = 1.2–2.1) and anxiety (RR = 1.5–2.7) disorders at Wave 2. Child maltreatment and interpersonal trauma exposure since Wave 1 were associated with roughly 50% of the risk for disorder transitions (RR range = 1.2–2.7); non-interpersonal trauma was associated with 30% of the risk for disorder transitions (RR range = 1.0–1.7). Findings suggest that new onset disorders were common in U.S. adults and trauma exposure explained a large proportion of disorder incidence as well as progression from one disorder to another. Universal prevention efforts that begin early in life, rather than those targeted at specific disorders, would be fruitful for reducing the burden of population mental health and preventing a cascade of mental disorders over the life course.

Relationship between interpersonal trauma exposure and addictive behaviors: a systematic review

BackgroundThe aim of this study was to systematically summarize knowledge on the association between exposure to interpersonal trauma and addictive behaviors. Extant reviews on this association focused on a restricted range of substance-related addictions, and/or used a narrative instead of a systematic approach.MethodsSystematic searches of 8 databases yielded 29,841 studies, of which 3054 studies were included and subsequently classified in relation to study design (scoping review). A subset of observational studies (N = 181) prospectively investigating the relationship between exposure to interpersonal traumata and subsequent behavioral or substance-related addiction problems were characterized. Heterogeneity in study methodologies and types of addictive behaviors and traumatic experiences assessed precluded meta-analysis. Instead, the proportions of associations tested in this literature that revealed positive, negative, or null relationships between trauma exposure and subsequent addictive behaviors were recorded, along with other methodological features.ResultsOf 3054 included studies, 70.7% (n = 2160) used a cross-sectional design. In the 181 prospective observational studies (407,041 participants, 98.8% recruited from developed countries), 35.1% of the tested associations between trauma exposure and later addictive behaviors was positive, 1.3% was negative, and 63.6% was non-significant. These results were primarily obtained among non-treatment seeking samples (80.7% of studies; n = 146), using single and multi-item measures of addictive behaviors of unknown psychometric quality (46.4% of studies). Positive associations were more frequently observed in studies examining childhood versus adult traumatization (39.7% vs. 29.7%).ConclusionsLongitudinal research in this area emphasizes alcohol abuse, and almost no research has examined behavioral addictions. Results provide some support for a positive association between exposure to interpersonal trauma and subsequent addictive behaviors but this relationship was not consistently reported. Longitudinal studies typically assessed trauma exposure retrospectively, often after addictive behavior onset, thus precluding robust inferences about whether traumatization affects initial onset of addictive behaviors.

Maternal Interpersonal Trauma and Child Social-Emotional Development: An Intergenerational Effect.

Evidence suggests that maternal interpersonal trauma can adversely affect offspring health, but little is known about potential transmission pathways. We investigated whether interpersonal trauma exposure had direct and indirect associations with offspring social-emotional development at 12-months of age in an at-risk, home visited population. A retrospective cohort study was conducted of 1172 mother-child dyads who participated in a multi-site, early childhood home visiting program. Children were born January 2007 to June 2010 and data were collected at enrolment (prenatal/birth) through 12-months of age. Multivariable path analyses were used to examine the relationship between maternal interpersonal trauma, subsequent psychosocial mediators (maternal depressive symptoms, social support, and home environment), and the outcome of child social-emotional development measured with the Ages and Stages Questionnaire: Social-Emotional (ASQ:SE). Maternal interpersonal trauma was characterized as any previous exposure, the level of exposure, and type (e.g. abuse) of exposure. The prevalence of maternal interpersonal trauma exposure was 69.1%, and exposures ranged from 1 type (19.3%) to 7 types (2.3%). Interpersonal trauma was associated with a 3.6 point (95% confidence interval 1.8, 5.4) higher ASQ:SE score among offspring and indicated greater developmental risk. An estimated 23.4% of the total effect was mediated by increased maternal depressive symptoms and lower social support. Differential effects were observed by the level and type of interpersonal trauma exposure. Maternal interpersonal trauma exposures can negatively impact child social-emotional development, acting in part through maternal psychosocial factors. Future research is needed to further elucidate the mechanisms of intergenerational risk.

Impact of Maternal Lifetime Interpersonal Trauma on Children's Asthma: Mediation Through Maternal Active Asthma During Pregnancy.

Traumatic stressors, including child abuse and/or interpersonal violence over a woman's lifecourse, can affect the health of her children. This study examines the associations between maternal lifetime interpersonal trauma (IPT) and children's asthma by age 6 years (n = 857). Pregnant women completed the Revised Conflict Tactics Scale; IPT exposure was categorized as unexposed (55%), early (childhood and/or teen years only, 25%), late (adulthood and/or index pregnancy, 7%), and chronic (early and late, 13%). Clinician-diagnosed asthma in children was reported by mothers at each follow-up visit until the child reached age 6 years. We examined the effects of maternal IPT categories and child's asthma using logistic regression. Using structural equation models, we also examined indirect relationships between maternal chronic IPT and child asthma operating through active asthma in pregnancy, prepregnancy BMI, prenatal smoking, and/or increased exposure to other adverse life events or environmental toxins prenatally. Effect modification by the child's sex was examined. Mothers were primarily Hispanic (55%) or black (30%) with less than high school education (62%). In logistic regression models, chronic maternal IPT (compared with unexposed) was associated with asthma in boys (odds ratio = 2.87, 95% confidence interval = 1.48-5.57) but not girls (odds ratio = 0.69, 95% confidence interval = 0.23-2.12; pinteraction = .042). In structural equation models, chronic IPT was associated with maternal active asthma in pregnancy (β = 0.59, p < .001), maternal active asthma was associated with children's asthma (β = 0.20, p = .009), and the total indirect effect for this path was significant (β = 0.12, p = .031). Associations were most evident among boys. Mothers' history of chronic IPT was associated with asthma in boys. This association was mediated through active maternal asthma in pregnancy.

The Impact of Interpersonal and Noninterpersonal Trauma on Psychological Symptoms in Refugees: The Moderating Role of Gender and Trauma Type.

Research findings have documented a relationship between the number of types of traumatic events to which refugees were exposed and psychological disorders. It is unclear, however, if gender moderates the impact of trauma on refugee mental health. The participants in this study were 60 male and 31 female refugees and asylum-seekers resettled in Australia. Participants had a mean age of 34.54 years (SD = 9.70), and were from a variety of countries including Iraq, Iran, and Sri Lanka. We conducted a multigroup path analysis to test if the relationship between psychological outcomes of exposure to trauma (posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD] symptoms, symptoms of anxiety, and symptoms of depression) was different as a function of the type of traumatic exposure (interpersonal vs. noninterpersonal) or as a function of gender. We found a significant relationship between interpersonal trauma exposure and PTSD symptoms (β = .77) and anxiety symptoms (β = .32) in women, and a significant association between noninterpersonal trauma exposure and PTSD symptoms (β = .59), anxiety (β =.49), and depression symptoms (β = .32) in men. For men, the effect sizes of the relationship between exposure to specific types of noninterpersonal trauma and psychological symptoms ranged from d = 0.14 to 1.01; for exposure to interpersonal trauma, they ranged from d = -0.53 to 0.43. For women, the effect sizes of the relationship between exposure to specific types of noninterpersonal trauma and psychological symptoms ranged from d = -0.79 to 0.67; for exposure to interpersonal trauma, they ranged from d = -0.09 to 1.46. These results suggested supporting refugees in their efforts to overcome the psychological impact of trauma, including the allocation of resources in clinical services to support the psychological recovery of refugees.

Attachment Dimensions and Post-traumatic Symptoms Following Interpersonal Traumas versus Impersonal Traumas in Young Adults in Taiwan.

Greater risk of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is seen in individuals exposed to interpersonal traumatic events. Based on an attachment perspective, interpersonal trauma exposure may activate one's attachment insecurity system and disrupt affect, behaviour and interpersonal function, which may in turn create more difficulties to cope with interpersonal traumas and exacerbate PTSD symptomatology. The present study examined whether attachment anxiety relative to attachment avoidance would be a stronger predictor of greater PTSD symptoms following interpersonal traumas versus impersonal traumas in a Taiwanese sample. One hundred and sixty-two trauma-exposed Taiwanese young adults completed the measures of symptoms of depression, anxiety and PTSD, and attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance. In this Taiwanese study, higher attachment anxiety was observed in individuals who were exposed to interpersonal traumas. The interpersonal trauma group reported greater PTSD symptoms than did the impersonal trauma group. Specifically, after controlling for age, occurrence of trauma and distress of trauma, attachment anxiety, but not attachment avoidance, predicted more PTSD total severity and avoidance symptoms in the interpersonal trauma group. The findings may be pertinent to attachment anxiety-related hyperactivating strategies, as well as specific cultural values and a forbearance strategy applied to regulate traumatic distress in a collectivist society. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Physical Health Consequences of Interpersonal Trauma: A Systematic Review of the Role of Psychological Variables

Interpersonal forms of trauma are among the most commonly reported traumas. These types of traumas are more damaging to well-being than noninterpersonal forms. They have also been strongly associated with somatic symptoms and more general physical health problems. Nevertheless, the results of trauma studies are mixed and suggest that pathways may vary according to the stressors, mediators, and health outcomes investigated. This article presents a systematic qualitative review of published studies that have investigated interpersonal trauma, its association with physical health, and the potential role of intervening psychological variables. A systematic search was made of four psychology and health electronic databases. Of the 863 studies reviewed, 50 were preselected, 11 of which met the inclusion and methodological quality criteria. All but one study had a cross-sectional design. The findings showed that childhood trauma exposure was the most common category of interpersonal trauma addressed in the reviewed studies and that the physical health variables investigated were diverse. The psychological variables most frequently investigated in the studies were posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, dissociation, and substance abuse. Overall, the results suggest that interpersonal trauma exposure is associated with poorer physical health; however, the role of intervening psychological variables remains unclear. The limitations of the reviewed literature are discussed, and methodological recommendations are made for future research.

Multiple trauma exposure and psychosocial functioning in Singaporean children in out-of-home care.

Children in out-of-home care are often exposed to chronic, interpersonal traumas such as abuse and domestic violence. Exposure to more than 1 interpersonal trauma is associated with functional impairments, mental health symptoms, and risk behaviors. Despite the importance of studying trauma in this vulnerable population, very few studies have investigated trauma exposure among children and youth in out-of-home care in Asia. This is the first study to examine the effects of multiple interpersonal trauma exposure in a large sample of children in out-of-home care in Singapore. A cross-sectional study of 721 children between the ages of 5 and 17 years residing in foster care and voluntary children's homes in Singapore was conducted to determine the proportion of children with interpersonal trauma exposure and the effect of trauma exposure on psychosocial functioning. Results indicated that 63% of the sample experienced at least 1 interpersonal trauma, with neglect (34%) and physical abuse (31%) the most prevalent. Girls were more likely to be emotionally and sexually abused than boys. Children with multiple interpersonal trauma exposure (35% of the sample) were significantly older, more likely to be female, and had a higher number of life functioning, behavioral, and emotional, as well as risk behavior needs compared with children with no previous trauma. Findings highlight the importance of conducting comprehensive assessments of children in out-of-home care to provide specialized interventions for children with interpersonal trauma exposure. (PsycINFO Database Record

Evidence of Shared Genome-Wide Additive Genetic Effects on Interpersonal Trauma Exposure and Generalized Vulnerability to Drug Dependence in a Population of Substance Users.

Exposure to traumatic experiences is associated with an increased risk for drug dependence and poorer response to substance abuse treatment (Claus & Kindleberger, 2002; Jaycox, Ebener, Damesek, & Becker, 2004). Despite this evidence, the reasons for the observed associations of trauma and the general tendency to be dependent upon drugs of abuse remain unclear. Data (N = 2,596) from the Study of Addiction: Genetics and Environment were used to analyze (a) the degree to which commonly occurring single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs; minor allele frequency > 1%) in the human genome explains exposure to interpersonal traumatic experiences, and (b) the extent to which additive genetic effects on trauma are shared with additive genetic effects on drug dependence. Our results suggested moderate additive genetic influences on interpersonal trauma, h(2) SNP-Interpersonal = .47, 95% confidence interval (CI) [.10, .85], that are partially shared with additive genetic effects on generalized vulnerability to drug dependence, h(2) SNP-DD = .36, 95% CI [.11, .61]; rG-SNP = .49, 95% CI [.02, .96]. Although the design/technique does not exclude the possibility that substance abuse causally increases risk for traumatic experiences (or vice versa), these findings raise the possibility that commonly occurring SNPs influence both the general tendency towards drug dependence and interpersonal trauma.

Failure to differentiate between threat-related and positive emotion cues in healthy adults with childhood interpersonal or adult trauma

Enhanced threat-related processing is associated with both elevated anxiety and childhood exposure to trauma. Given the paucity of evidence regarding the effects of childhood and adult trauma exposure on subsequent psychophysiological processes in the absence of psychopathology, we investigated the relative impacts of childhood interpersonal and non-interpersonal trauma, as well as adult trauma exposure on neural processing of threat in healthy adults. We measured peak amplitudes of the N170 face-sensitive visual ERP component response to non-conscious and conscious Angry (threat) versus Happy (non-threat, positive) and Neutral (non-threat baseline) faces at temporo-occipital sites (right-T6; left-T5) in 489 psychiatrically asymptomatic adults (aged 18–70 years, 54% women, 94% right-handed). N170 peak amplitude differences between Angry vs Happy or Neutral faces were calculated and subjected to hierarchical multiple regression analysis, with trauma types (childhood interpersonal, childhood non-interpersonal and adult trauma) entered as predictors of interest. After controlling for sociodemographic and health factors, N170 peak amplitudes for non-conscious Angry vs Happy faces were inversely associated with childhood interpersonal trauma at T6 and adult trauma exposure at T5. Post-hoc repeated measures ANOVA indicated that unlike adults without trauma exposure, trauma-exposed adults failed to show significantly reduced N170 responses to Happy relative to Angry faces during non-conscious processing. This suggests that childhood interpersonal and adult trauma exposure are associated with a failure to differentiate between non-threat or positive and threat-related emotion cues. This is consistent with generalised hypervigilance seen in PTSD, and suggests trauma exposure is associated with a generalized heightened responsivity to non-conscious non-threat or positive as well as threat-related emotion cues in psychiatrically healthy adults.