Interpersonal Transgressions Research Articles

(Not) Thinking about you: Differences in victims’ and perpetrators’ self‐focus after interpersonal and intergroup transgressions

AbstractWe tested the hypothesis that, following a transgression, victims and perpetrators differ in their focus of attention. In three studies (total N = 740), we manipulated participants’ social role (victim vs. perpetrator) in a hypothetical scenario (Studies 1 and 2) and in a perceived real conflict (Study 3) in an interpersonal (Studies 1 and 2) and an intergroup (Study 3) context. Results from all studies confirmed that victims show a stronger self‐focus than perpetrators. Moreover, results suggest victims’ higher self‐focus as a predictor of willingness to reconcile. Participants’ self‐focus mediated the effect of social role on reconciliation intentions as a single mediator (Study 2), or in sequence with their motivation to consider the other party's needs (Study 3). Overall, the present research suggests that victims and perpetrators differ in their focus of attention, and that this difference has important theoretical and practical implications for reconciliation between individuals and between groups.

Attachment dimensions and forgiveness of others: A meta-analysis

Forgiveness, as a response to interpersonal transgressions, has multiple societal and individual benefits. Individual differences in attachment have been identified as a predictor not only of forgiveness but of state responses frequently associated with forgiveness. The current meta-analysis is the first systematic analysis of the effect of attachment dimensions (i.e., anxiety and avoidance) on forgiveness of others. Analysis of published and unpublished studies ( k = 26) identified significant, small-to-medium effects of attachment anxiety ( r = −.25) and attachment avoidance ( r = −.18) on forgiveness of others. No significant difference was obtained between measures of state and trait forgiveness. The moderating effects of study paradigm, attachment measure, publication type, and sample population were also investigated. The findings of a stable negative effect of insecure attachment dimensions on forgiveness of others provide a base for future research that may focus on reducing attachment anxiety and avoidance to support forgiveness.

The cross-lagged relationship between interpersonal forgiveness and depression symptoms in China.

This study investigated the relationship between the process of forgiveness and depressive symptoms in China. A total of 116 college students who had experienced an interpersonal transgression "within the past week" were selected to perform the tracking measurements at 2-week intervals. Cross-lagged models showed that the victim's depressive symptoms were related to increasing revenge and avoidance motivations as well as decreased benevolence motivation; however, the revenge, avoidance, and benevolence motivations of the victims did not predict subsequent changes in depressive symptoms. These results confirm that the presence of depressive symptoms is a predictor of the reduced interpersonal forgiveness, and the alleviation of individuals' depressive symptoms plays a protective role in the adaptive process of interpersonal relationships.

Individual differences in apology acceptance and forgiveness: the influence of handedness

ABSTRACTThe purpose of the current study was to determine if the relationship between interhemispheric interaction and cognitive flexibility extends to explanations of forgiveness and apology acceptance. A growing body of research indicates that consistency of handedness may be reflective of an individual’s degree of interhemispheric interaction and access to processes of the right hemisphere. As such, individual differences in processing that require interhemispheric interaction, such as belief updating, are associated with consistency of handedness. Participants completed the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory (EHI) and read descriptions of interpersonal transgressions, then rated their willingness to forgive before and after an apology was offered. There was a main effect such that the presence of apology increased forgiveness. However, inconsistent handedness was associated with greater forgiveness prior to apology compared to consistent handedness. A second study was conducted to determine if the individual differences in forgiveness were mediated by different dimensions of empathy (personal distress, perspective taking, empathic concern and fantasy). Participants completed the Interpersonal Reactivity Index, the Forgiveness Scale and the EHI. Results revealed those with inconsistent handedness who scored lower on personal distress reported decreased negative thoughts about transgressors compared to those with consistent handedness.

Emerging Adulthood Measured at Multiple Institutions 2: The Data

Collaborators from 32 academic institutions primarily in the United States collected data from emerging adults (Nraw = 4220, Nprocessed = 3134). Participants completed self-report measures assessing markers of adulthood, IDEA inventory of dimensions of emerging adulthood, subjective well-being, mindfulness, belonging, self-efficacy, disability identity, somatic health, perceived stress, perceived social support, social media use, political affiliation, beliefs about the American dream, interpersonal transgressions, narcissism, interpersonal exploitativeness, beliefs about marriage, and demographics. The data are available at (https://osf.io/qtqpb/) with details about the study and contributors at our main EAMMi2 page (https://osf.io/te54b/). These data may be used to examine new research questions, provide authentic research experiences for students, and provide demonstrations for research and statistics courses.

Roles of Anger and Rumination in the Relationship Between Self-Compassion and Forgiveness

Self-compassion can improve mental health and enable individuals to develop aspects of prosocial motivation such as forgiveness. Self-compassion is associated with forgiveness; however, cognitive and emotional mechanisms underlying this association remain underexplored. Based on Worthington’s stress-and-coping theory of forgiveness, we examined the roles of rumination and anger—two typical psychological responses to interpersonal transgressions—in the relationship between self-compassion and forgiveness. By analyzing a sample of 358 Chinese college students (132 male students, mean age = 19.18 years), we determined that self-compassion and forgiveness were negatively associated with anger and rumination. Structural equation modeling results revealed that self-compassion was associated with forgiveness directly and indirectly through decreased anger and rumination. Furthermore, rumination was associated with forgiveness indirectly through anger. These findings indicate that anger is a proximal predictor of forgiveness. The results of the present study suggest that increasing self-compassion, reducing rumination, and alleviating anger are substantial and interventive processes for cultivating forgiveness.

Costly apologies communicate conciliatory intention: an fMRI study on forgiveness in response to costly apologies

Abstract Reconciliation is an integral part of our social lives. Nevertheless, if a victim perceives the risk of further exploitation by his/her transgressor as non-negligible, the victim may well have difficulty forgiving the transgressor. Therefore, a key ingredient of reconciliation is the transgressor's sincere apology. Theoretical and empirical studies have shown that transgressors can make their apologies credible by incurring a substantial cost. Therefore, we hypothesized that costly apologies, compared to non-costly apologies (i.e., simply saying sorry), would effectively communicate a transgressor's conciliatory intention. In a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study, participants were asked to imagine a friend committing a mild interpersonal transgression (e.g., standing up the participant) and then apologizing in a costly fashion, apologizing in a non-costly fashion, or not apologizing at all. Compared to non-costly apologies and non-apologies, costly apologies (signals of conciliatory intention) more strongly activated the theory-of-mind network (i.e., bilateral temporoparietal junction, precuneus, medial prefrontal cortex). Moreover, we did not observe any significant differences in brain responses to non-costly apologies and non-apology controls. These results underscore the importance of costly signals in human communication and in human peace-making in particular.

Can Ethical Ideologies Predict Prejudice?

Idealism and relativism were designed to assess different ethical ideological views. Their relation with attitudes toward a variety of outgroups has not been previously studied. Understanding how concerns over ethical principles and consequences are related to prejudiced attitudes could provide some insight into these constructs and into the nature of prejudice. In two studies totaling 311 participants, participants completed measures on ethical ideologies, right-wing authoritarianism, and attitudes toward various outgroups. The differential predictive validities of ethical ideologies, in comparison to right-wing authoritarianism, on prejudicial attitudes toward dangerous, derogated, and dissident outgroup members were examined. We found that both idealism and relativism contributed to predicting attitudes regarding outgroup members, over and above right-wing authoritarianism. As such, people’s personal moral standards and code of conduct for dealing with interpersonal problems and transgressions can partly explain their negative attitudes toward outgroup members. More research is required to determine the unique influence of ethical ideologies over other constructs previously shown to predict prejudice.

Unforgiveness: Refining theory and measurement of an understudied construct.

This research presents a multidimensional conceptualization of unforgiveness and the development and validation of the unforgiveness measure (UFM). The scale was developed based on a qualitative study of people's experiences of unforgiven interpersonal offences (Study 1). Three dimensions of unforgiveness emerged (Study 2): emotional-ruminative unforgiveness, cognitive-evaluative unforgiveness, and offender reconstrual. We supported the scale's factor structure, reliability, and validity (Study 3). We also established the convergent and discriminant validity of the UFM with measures of negative affect, rumination, forgiveness, cognitive reappraisal, and emotional suppression (Study 4). Together, our results suggest that the UFM can capture variability in victims' unforgiving experiences in the aftermath of interpersonal transgressions. Implications for understanding the construct of unforgiveness and directions for future research are discussed.

Mindfulness and Forgiveness Buffer Distress: Associations With Interpersonal Transgression Blameworthiness

This study examined psychopathological symptom outcomes in victims of interpersonal transgressions (IPTs) based on differences in offender blameworthiness attributions. Mindfulness and forgiveness were hypothesized to serve as protective factors against depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms. The results highlight the buffering influence of dispositional mindfulness and forgiveness on symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress. These results provide initial evidence that mindfulness‐ and forgiveness‐based procedures may have beneficial therapeutic outcomes for individuals who experience psychopathology as the result of IPTs, specifically IPTs deemed intentional by the victim.

Why Narcissists Are Unwilling to Apologize: The Role of Empathy and Guilt

We hypothesized that narcissists would be unwilling to apologize for their interpersonal transgressions, and that reduced levels of self–reported empathy and guilt would serially mediate this effect. Narcissism is characterized by little empathy for the victim, which reduces guilt about one's transgressions. Low guilt, in turn, is associated with unwillingness to apologize. In Study 1, we assessed dispositional narcissism, empathy, guilt, and willingness to apologize. In Study 2, we assessed dispositional narcissism and obtained state measures of empathy, guilt, and willingness to apologize. In Study 3, we manipulated narcissism and collected state measures of empathy, guilt, and willingness to apologize. Narcissism was negatively associated with (Studies 1–2) and decreased (Study 3) willingness to apologize, with this link being explained (i.e., serially mediated) by low empathy and guilt. Finally, in Study 4, we showed that antagonistic narcissism (i.e., narcissistic rivalry), but not agentic narcissism (i.e., narcissistic admiration), was negatively associated with willingness to apologize and apologizing behaviour. In all, narcissists are unwilling to apologize for their transgressions, as they experience little empathy for their victims and lower guilt. Copyright © 2017 European Association of Personality Psychology

The effect of apology on forgiveness: Belief in a just world as a moderator

The current investigation proposed that an apology's curative effect for dealing with interpersonal transgressions depends on dispositional justice beliefs, namely the Belief in a Just World (BJW).Study 1 (N=116) used scenarios describing an offense in close relationships, and revealed that an apology promoted forgiveness only among people with low BJW. This effect was mediated by level of affect. Study 2 (N=195) replicated the pattern using different scenarios, measure of avoidance, benevolence, and revenge, and controlling for the Big Five personality dimensions and interpersonal trust. The effect was mediated by perceived intent.The findings support the role of BJW as a coping mechanism and underscore the importance of emotional reactions and perceived intention in the process of forgiveness.

Revisión psicométrica de tres escalas del perdón: midiendo la metamorfosis emocional

It has been reported that suffering from interpersonal transgressions may cause individuals to maintain resentment and experience more negative affect, anger, stress, and depression (Stackhouse, Ross, & Boon, 2016). Given its impact on physical and mental health, it is important to study forgiveness from a scientific perspective, for which counting on valid and reliable measure instruments is highly important. However, there are just a few in Spanish, and haven’t been deeply studied, so in this research the psychometric properties of three scales of forgiveness were reviewed: The Forgiveness Capacity Scale (CAPER; Casullo & Fernández-Liporacce, 2005), the Forgiveness Scale (Vargas-Núñez & Pozos-Gutiérrez, 2005), and the Scale of Forgiveness in the Romantic Relationship (Rosales-Sarabia, 2013). For the psychometric analysis of CAPER and the Forgiveness Scale, 253 adults participated, while for the Scale of Forgiveness in the Romantic Relationship, 238 people involved in a relationship participated, all residents of the metropolitan area of the Mexico City. The results showed that only the Forgiveness Scale in the Romantic Relationship replicated its factorial structure in a different sample. Findings are discussed in the light of international scientific literature.

When does priming justice promote forgiveness? On the importance of distributive and procedural justice for self and others

Two studies show that thinking about justice can both enhance and impede forgiveness, depending on whether thoughts about distributive and procedural justice for self and others are activated. In Study 1 (n = 197), participants expressed more forgiveness towards a prior transgressor when primed to think about justice for self or procedural justice for others, and less forgiveness when primed to think about distributive justice for others. Study 2 (n = 231) used an alternate priming method and replicated these effects by inducing an interpersonal transgression and measuring forgiveness intentions, emotions and behavior. Study 2 also showed that priming justice influences forgiveness especially when the perceived severity of an interpersonal offense is high. The current research shows that activating justice cognitions can enhance or impinge on forgiveness in predictable ways. We discuss contributions to emerging justice theory, potential implications, and future directions.

The Effect of Mindfulness and Implementation Planning on the Process of Granting and Seeking Forgiveness Among Young Adults

Previous research suggests that college-aged students, especially first-year college students, are particularly prone to experience relational conflict. Interpersonal forgiveness has been well-documented as a variable that can reduce relational conflict among young adults. However, limited empirical research to date has explored the motivation and ability of college-aged students to engage in forgiveness granting behaviors when they are the victim of an interpersonal conflict; this lack of empirical research is especially noteworthy when considering the perpetrator’s perspective and why (motivation) and how (ability) perpetrators engage in forgiveness seeking behaviors following conflict. The current research assessed forgiveness granting and seeking behaviors for victims and perpetrators of an interpersonal transgression, respectively. Using behavior change models as a theoretical guide, we exposed young adults to a message pertaining to reasons/motivations for why they should engage in forgiveness behaviors as well as two techniques (i.e., mindfulness or implementation planning) that may promote the ability to express granting/seeking forgiveness. Sampling from 144 young adults, results indicate that participants exposed to reasons/motives for forgiveness as well as a mindfulness or implementation planning technique were more likely to engage in forgiveness grating/seeking behaviors than participants who were not exposed to this information. Participants’ mood and attitudes toward forgiveness granting/seeking were enhanced by receiving both a message and a technique. These results were especially pronounced for victims of an interpersonal transgression who practiced mindfulness. Overall, mindfulness appeared to be the most promising technique in promoting forgiveness.

Two pathways to self‐forgiveness: A hedonic path via self‐compassion and a eudaimonic path via the reaffirmation of violated values

Self-forgiveness is often measured as a hedonic end-state, as the presence of positive affect and the absence of negative affect towards the self following a wrongdoing. However, self-forgiveness is also referred to as a difficult process. Self-forgiveness as a process of accepting responsibility and working through one's wrongdoing is a substantially un-hedonic - it is likely to be uncomfortable and at times painful. In this study, we examine two pathways to self-forgiveness: a hedonic focused pathway (via self-compassion) and a eudaimonic pathway (via reaffirmation of transgressed values). Across two studies, the data suggest that following interpersonal transgressions, self-compassion reduces self-punitiveness and increases end-state self-forgiveness (Study 1) via a reduction in perceived stigma (Study 2). In contrast, value reaffirmation increases the process of genuine self-forgiveness and reduces defensiveness (Study 1) via increased concern for shared group values (Study 2), in turn increasing desire to reconcile (Study 1), and amend-making and end-state self-forgiveness 1week following the intervention (Study 2). The results suggest that both pathways can lead to self-forgiveness; however, following a transgression, self-forgiveness via a eudaimonic pathway offers greater promise for meeting the needs of both offenders and victims.

The GFIT Scale: Measuring Goals Following Interpersonal Transgressions

ABSTRACTIn two studies, we created and validated a scale assessing 12 possible goals that individuals might wish to pursue when transgressed against by another person (e.g., relationship maintenance, power over the offender, retributive justice). Results demonstrated that the 12 subscales of the Goals Following Interpersonal Transgressions scale (GFIT) were reliable and exhibited convergent and discriminant validity with transgression-related interpersonal motivations (i.e., the TRIM), and relevant personality traits (i.e., the Dark Triad). Additional analyses revealed that the structure of the scale was robust across different kinds of transgressions and for differing relationships between victim and offender. We argue that the GFIT is a versatile scale with several advantages over existing measures.

Asymmetries between victims' and transgressors' perspectives following interpersonal transgressions

AbstractWhen interpersonal transgressions occur, the involved parties try to understand what occurred and how justice should be restored. However, research has documented that victims and transgressors often diverge in their accounts of what transpired. In this paper, I review and summarize empirical research on victims' and transgressors' asymmetric perceptions of interpersonal transgressions and the different justice‐restoring responses each party subsequently desires. By conceptualizing transgressions in terms of the social roles of victim and transgressor, I contend that justice responses can be thought of as attempts to correct inequitable distributions of material and symbolic resources. This social exchange perspective enables us to understand each party's motives and how various justice responses might satisfy them. I argue that because of these asymmetric perspectives, reconciliation is difficult, and conflict is liable to be perpetuated rather than resolved.

Promoting Forgiveness Through Psychological Distance

We examined whether psychological distance from interpersonal transgressions can promote victim forgiveness via high-level construal. Participants responded to conflict vignettes. In Experiment 1, we found a positive effect of temporal distance on forgiveness, mediated by construal level. In Experiment 2, we found a positive effect of physical distance on construal level (2a) and a positive effect of construal level on forgiveness (2b). In Experiment 3, we found that construal level promotes forgiveness via reduced perceptions of transgression severity. Together, our experiments demonstrate that increasing victims’ psychological distance from interpersonal transgressions promotes forgiveness due to high-level construal. Implications for construal level theory and for research on forgiveness are discussed.

The Effects of Moral Emotional Traits on Workplace Bullying Perpetration

This study investigates the role of “moral” emotional traits—guilt proneness, shame proneness, empathic concern, and perspective taking—as predictors of workplace bullying perpetration. We also test and find support for a model derived from moral emotions literature and the sociometer theory of self-esteem in which the tendency to take reparative action following interpersonal transgressions mediates the buffering effect of guilt proneness on bullying. Data were obtained from working MBA students and advanced undergraduates during 2 survey sessions, 4 to 6 weeks apart. Findings indicate that moral emotional traits may be useful to consider in personnel selection as a means to reduce workplace bullying.