Interpersonal Emotion Regulation Research Articles

THE CONTRIBUTION OF PERCEIVED COLLECTIVE EFFICACY BELIEFS AND INTERPERSONAL EMOTION REGULATION TO TURKISH EFL TEACHERS’ JOB STRESS

The goal of this study was to explore the relationship between perceived job stress and a specific set of predictor variables among the selected university preparatory school EFL (English as a Foreign Language) teachers in Turkey. To comprehensively analyze the issue of perceived job stress, interpersonal emotion regulation, and teacher collective efficacy used as variables. The sample consisted of 48 EFL teachers in various Turkish university preparatory schools. It was hypothesized that high levels of teacher collective efficacy beliefs would be a negative predictor of perceived stress among the EFL teachers. A negative relationship was also predicted between interpersonal emotion regulation and perceived job stress levels among the selected teachers. The research hypotheses were tested using data collected through surveys. While the relationship between EFL teachers’ collective efficacy beliefs and interpersonal emotion regulation was significant, their perceived job stress and interpersonal emotion regulation were negatively related, but the association was not strong enough to reach a significant level. The results of the study indicated that demographic variables such as age, and the years of language teaching experience did not have any significant effect on teachers’ collective self-efficacy belief, perceived job stress, and interpersonal emotion regulation of the selected Turkish EFL Instructors in university preparatory programs. The study highlighted the fact that enhancing EFL teachers’ collective efficacy belief would reduce the tension teachers experience in the form of stress and would improve their emotion regulation skills.<p> </p><p><strong> Article visualizations:</strong></p><p><img src="/-counters-/edu_01/0914/a.php" alt="Hit counter" /></p>

Étude des relations entre régulation émotionnelle (intra- et interpersonnelle), construction de l’identité et usages des jeux vidéo à l’adolescence

ObjectiveThe goal of this study is to investigate the relationships between intrapersonal and interpersonal emotion regulation processes and identity construction regarding video games use among a population of teenagers and young adults. This investigation is made considering gender differences, and is the first to do so in this field of research. MethodsAccording to the scores of the Game Addiction Scale and the game frequency scores, three groups have been formed: non-gamers (NG, n=37, mean age=19.70), non-problematic gamers (NPG, n=133, mean age=18.60) ang problematic gamers (PG, n=37, mean age=20.16). Participants full filled several questionnaires regarding identity construction: the Dimension of Identity Development Scale, the Utrecht-Management of Identity Commitments Scale, the Identity subscale of the Erikson Psychosocial Inventory Scale. Regarding emotional processes, the Positive And Negative Affect Schedule, the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale, the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents, and the Interpersonal Regulation Questionnaire were completed by our participants. ResultsResults show many relationships between emotion regulation processes (intra- and interpersonal) and identity construction processes, regardless of video game use level. Also, specificities within these processes according to video game use appear: the non-problematic gamers being the group in which we find the most significant links. Our findings also emphasize gender specificities. ConclusionOur results confirm the interdependence between both intrapersonal et interpersonal emotion regulation and identity construction. Nevertheless, it is crucial to consider gender and video game use to understand these relationships, as emotion regulation processes differ according to gender. Our results provide useful perspectives regarding psychotherapeutic caring of teenagers and young adults with problematic video game use and put the emphasis on considering gender specificities to adjust the therapeutic support. In fact, important links were found between interpersonal emotion regulation and identity especially regarding negative emotions among boys; while the relationship between negative tendency of the interpersonal emotion regulation were found only among problematic girls gamers. Therefore, therapeutical care should put the emphasis on emotion processes: intrapersonal and interpersonal regulation but also emotion conscientization and clarity, two dimensions linked strongly to identity formation. Also, therapy may integrate parents, considering their involvement in these emotion processes development. Furthermore, we can also note a partial congruence between the two scales measuring the identity construction, highlighting the importance of the joint use of these two tools.

Associations of interpersonal and intrapersonal emotion regulation strategies to suicidal ideation and suicide attempts

BackgroundDespite research and theory linking emotion regulation (ER) difficulties to suicidal thoughts and behaviors, limited research has examined the relations of specific ER strategies to suicide risk outcomes, and almost no research has examined interpersonal ER strategies in particular. Thus, this study sought to examine associations of specific interpersonal (venting, reassurance-seeking) and intrapersonal (avoidance, acceptance) ER strategies to suicidal ideation and suicide attempt history. MethodsA community sample of adults (N = 363) completed an online study, including measures of perceived burdensomeness, thwarted belongingness, past 3-month suicidal ideation, lifetime suicide attempts, and a scenario-based measure assessing the use of both interpersonal (venting, reassurance-seeking) and intrapersonal (avoidance, acceptance) ER strategies. ResultsWhen controlling for theoretically-relevant clinical and demographic covariates (and all other ER strategies), greater venting was uniquely associated with greater perceived burdensomeness. Greater avoidance was uniquely associated with greater thwarted belongingness, greater perceived burdensomeness, and a lifetime history of suicide attempts. ConclusionResults highlight the relevance of two specific ER strategies (venting and avoidance) that warrant further examination as potential treatment targets aimed at mitigating suicide risk. Limitations include examining only a subset of potential interpersonal and intrapersonal ER strategies, as well as the sole use of self-report measures.

Improving mental health in Multiple Sclerosis with an interpersonal emotion regulation intervention: A prospective, randomized controlled trial

BackgroundOver a third of people with Multiple Sclerosis (PwMS) struggle with poor mental health, which exacerbates physical symptoms and complicates clinical treatment. To address this, we tested the efficacy of an interpersonal emotion regulation intervention: this intervention seeks to improve mental health by teaching participants to use emotion regulation strategies which leverage social support (e.g., reaching out to others for comfort when experiencing a stressful event). MethodNineteen PwMS completed this prospective, blinded randomized controlled trial (intervention n = 10; control n = 9). Intervention participants met with an interventionist over six weeks to discuss their emotional challenges and develop goals to use interpersonal emotion regulation strategies. Participants in the control condition met with the interventionist on the same schedule but their emotion regulation strategies were only measured and not manipulated. Pre-registered primary outcomes were self-reported depression, stress, and quality of life (QoL). The pre-registered secondary outcome was self-reported social support. ResultsIntervention participants’ depression scores improved from time 1 to time 2 (mean difference=3.60, 95% CI [0.44–6.76]), yet remained unchanged for the control group (mean difference=-1.67, 95% CI [-5.00–1.67], overall interaction, F(1,17)=5.84, p=.027, ηp2=.256). The remaining primary (stress and QoL) and secondary (social support) outcomes did not show a significant effect of the intervention (stress: p=.601, ηp2=.016; QoL: p=.179, ηp2=.104; social support: p=.140, ηp2=.124). ConclusionInterpersonal emotion regulation is beneficial in improving depression in PwMS. Consequently, these strategies can be implemented in conjunction with existing mental health treatments in a holistic approach to improving well-being.

Examining Cultural Differences in the Associations between Appraisals and Emotion Regulation and PostTraumatic Stress Disorder in Malaysian and Australian Trauma Survivors.

Appraisals and emotional regulation play a central role in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Despite research demonstrating cultural differences in everyday appraisals and emotion regulation, little research has investigated the influence of culture on these processes in PTSD. This study examined cultural differences in the associations between appraisals, emotion regulation and PTSD symptoms using trauma survivors from an individualistic Western culture (Australia) and a collectivistic Asian culture (Malaysia). Trauma survivors (N = 228; 107 Australian with European cultural heritage, 121 Malaysian with Malay, Indian or Chinese cultural heritage) completed an on-line survey assessing PTSD (PTSD Checklist for the DSM-5 with Life Events Checklist), appraisals (trauma-related, fatalism, cultural beliefs about adversity) and emotion regulation (suppression, reappraisal, interpersonal). The Malaysian group reported significantly greater fatalism, cultural beliefs about adversity, suppression and interpersonal emotion regulation than the Australian group. Greater trauma-specific appraisals, greater suppression, fewer cultural beliefs about adversity, and less use of social skills to enhance positivity were generally associated with greater PTSD symptom severity, with little evidence of cultural group moderating these associations. Interdependent self-construal mediated the relationships between cultural adversity beliefs, enhanced positivity, reappraisal, perspective taking and PTSD symptoms. Independent self-construal mediated the relationships between fatalism and perspective taking and PTSD symptoms. Cultural group did not moderate these indirect effects. Interdependent self-construal mediated the associations between interpersonal regulation strategies of soothing and social modelling with PTSD symptoms for the Malaysian but not the Australian group. These findings demonstrate the importance of considering self-construal and culture in understanding factors associated with PTSD.

A Mixed-Method Examination of Coaches’ Interpersonal Emotion Regulation Toward Athletes

Athletes often upregulate and downregulate pleasant or unpleasant emotions to feel or perform better (i.e., for hedonic or instrumental reasons). In addition to athletes regulating their own emotions, interpersonal emotion regulation (IER) also occurs in sports, wherein individuals attempt to regulate the emotions of others. Although previous research has examined IER between teammates, studies have rarely considered coaches’ efforts to regulate athletes’ emotions. The current mixed-method study explored coaches’ beliefs about athletes’ emotions and engagement in IER. Analysis of quantitative survey data (N = 208) and qualitative interview data (n = 10) from competitive level coaches (Mage = 44.0 ± 13.2 years) revealed that coaches perceived both benefits and detriments of various emotions, and coaches’ beliefs about emotions influenced the ways they attempted to regulate athletes’ emotions. Most coaches reported frequently engaging in affect-improving IER. Although the coaches generally opposed the idea of intentionally worsening athletes’ emotions, sometimes their feedback to athletes had the effect of worsening their emotions. Coaches also emphasized the need to consider athletes’ individual differences when engaging in IER. The current findings highlight the relevance of coaches’ IER, suggest several directions for future research, and offer useful considerations for coaches and coach education programs.

Emotion Regulation at Work Employees and Leaders’ Perspectives

Organisations consist of people and people are beings guided not only by rational cognitive processes but also by emotions and seemingly irrational motives based on affect. This chapter elucidates the matter of intra- and interpersonal emotion regulation at work through the prism of employees and their leaders. It provides a critical overview of multiple aspects of the topic, outlining their importance in terms of subjective wellbeing in the workplace and objective performance at work as well as contemporary theoretical frameworks and empirically-based practical solutions. It helps readers to understand conscious and subconscious processes of regulating own and others’ emotions in occupational settings and explain various subsequent outcomes for organisations and their employees.

Correlates of interpersonal emotion regulation problems in Loss of Control eating (LOC) in youth: study protocol of the combined online and App based questionnaire, laboratory and randomized controlled online intervention i-BEAT trial

BackgroundBinge Eating Disorder (BED) represents a common eating disorder associated with marked health impairments. A subclinical variant, loss of control eating (LOC) is prevalent in youth. LOC is associated with similar mental distress as full-blown BED, increases the risk to develop a BED and promotes continuous weight gain. The etiology of LOC is not yet fully understood and specialized treatment for youth is scarce.MethodsThe i-BEAT study includes a cross-sectional and longitudinal online questionnaire study (N = 600), an App based daily-life approach and a laboratory virtual reality study in N = 60 youths (14–24 years) with and without LOC as well as a controlled randomized online treatment trial to investigate the feasibility, acceptance and efficacy of a CBT and an interpersonal emotion regulation module for youth (N = 120). The primary outcomes include self-reported as well as measured (heart rate variability, gaze behavior, reaction times in stop signal task) associations between emotion regulation problems (such as dealing with RS), psychological impairment and binge eating in a healthy control group and youth with LOC. Secondary outcomes encompass general eating disorder pathology, social anxiety, body mass index, hyperscanning behavior and therapists’ rating of patients’ condition pre and post treatment. Epigenetic correlates of RS are assessed in healthy controls and youth with LOC and explored before and after treatment.DiscussionThe expected findings will specify the role of interpersonal emotion regulation problems such as coping with the experience of social exclusion and rejection sensitivity (RS) in LOC and clarify, whether including a training to cope with RS adds to the efficacy of a cognitive behavioral treatment (CBT).Trial registration: German Clinical Trial Register: DRKS00023706. Registered 27 November 2020, https://www.drks.de/drks_web/navigate.do?navigationId=trial.HTML&TRIAL_ID=DRKS00023706

Cheering my friends up: The unique role of Interpersonal emotion regulation strategies in social competence

A systematic investigation has been lacking regarding children’s deliberate regulation of others’ emotions which is labeled interpersonal emotion regulation (ER). Based on a theoretically derived model of Interpersonal Affect Classification, we examined children’s interpersonal ER strategy use in the peer group. Participants were 398 fourth and fifth grade children from the Midwestern United States. Children rated themselves regarding their use of intrapersonal and interpersonal ER strategies as well as attention to friends’ emotions. Teacher-report and peer nominations were used to assess social competence regarding prosocial behavior and emotion sharing. Awareness of and attention to friends’ emotions were positively and more strongly associated with interpersonal ER than intrapersonal ER. Children reported affective engagement most strongly followed by humor, cognitive engagement, and attention to improve friends’ feelings. Among the four interpersonal ER strategies, only affective engagement was uniquely associated with social competence; intrapersonal ER was not associated with social competence. The findings support the significance of broadening the focus of ER to the interpersonal domain to promote the development of children’s ER and social competence.

Exploring the Moderating Effect of Interpersonal Emotion Regulation Between the Integration of Opportunity and Resource and Entrepreneurial Performance.

This study explains how start-ups obtain a high accumulated performance by aligning and employing an integration between opportunities and resources (IOR) in a dynamic environment and whether these potential benefits are associated with interpersonal emotion regulation. Using 274 enterprise samples, the findings confirm that an IOR has a significant positive effect on entrepreneurial performance. In addition, positive emotion and interpersonal relationship regulation positively moderate the relationship between IOR and entrepreneurial performance. This paper proposes a new concept of the IOR and measures it for the first time. Then, the relationship was explored between the IOR, interpersonal emotion regulation, and entrepreneurial performance. This research not only systematically integrates opportunities and resources and avoids their separation but also helps to reveal the context of entrepreneurship research, enrich entrepreneurship theory, and expand the boundaries.

Study protocol for a randomised controlled trial to evaluate the effectiveness of a serious game targeting interpersonal emotion regulation in early adolescents

BackgroundAdaptive interpersonal emotion regulation (iER) is a vital tool for positive relations. During early adolescence, peer relations become increasingly important, making this age group a relevant target group for interventions promoting positive interactions with each other, yet no evidence-based intervention exists for iER and early adolescents specifically.MethodsThis randomised controlled trial (RCT) aims to test effectiveness and feasibility of a serious game training iER skills in early adolescents by comparing outcomes with a control group playing a game without psychoeducational content in a pre- and post-test design. German- and English-speaking early adolescents (10–14 years) are eligible for participation. IER skills improvement as assessed by a vignette task is the primary outcome and will be analysed with a chi-square test. Secondary outcomes include feasibility and acceptability, emotional competence, personal emotion regulation, gender, and sex.DiscussionThis RCT will test whether playing a serious game about iER strategies results in an improvement of iER skills and whether the game is feasible and acceptable for early adolescents with the ultimate aim to implement the game in schools and help early adolescents achieve positive peer relationships.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.govNCT04808102, Registered on 19 March 2021

Regulating sadness: Response-independent and response-dependent benefits of listening to music

Listening to music is a common method of regulating unpleasant emotions such as sadness, but music listening has not been compared to prototypical interpersonal emotion-regulation strategies. We examined music’s response-independent benefits (i.e., benefits that do not require a response from another person) and response-dependent benefits (i.e., benefits that do require a response from another person) and compared those to other regulation strategies such as talking to a friend and asking someone for advice. College students ( N = 353) completed an online survey in which they rated their likelihood of using eight different strategies to regulate sadness and the benefits of using each strategy. Repeated-measures ANOVAs revealed listening to music was the most likely strategy used when sad. Moreover, listening to music provided the most response-independent benefits of any strategy we examined, including talking to a friend and asking someone for advice. Talking to a friend provided more interpersonal support than listening to music did, but listening to music did not provide any less of a shared experience than talking to a friend or asking someone for advice. These findings suggest that listening to music shares much in common with interpersonal emotion-regulation strategies such as talking with other people when sad.

'We Ought to Be Professionals': Strategies of Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Emotion Regulation of Emergency Medical Services Professionals in Confrontation With the Death of a Newborn in Simulated Task.

Managing one's own and others' emotions is a necessary part of emergency medical services (EMS) professionals' work. For that reason, we explored their emotion regulation strategies in a simulated task which focused these skills. Short semistructured interviews were conducted with 48 EMS professionals immediately after completing the task. They described their experience during this task as distressing on a manageable level. Emergent emotion regulation strategies are largely in line with established theoretical frameworks, but their specification is unique and offers new insights. Focusing on the task along with emotional distancing is a crucial combination employed by many EMS professionals. Pre-existing cognitive frames also help with processing of emotional stimuli. Among interpersonal strategies, allowing the relatives of a deceased child to cope with their grief was the most typical reaction. However, attempts to distract them or positively reframe their situation were also present, along with few other strategies.

Comparing Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Emotion Regulation Models in Explaining Depression and Anxiety Symptoms in College Students

Objectives: Emotion regulation is an important transdiagnostic construct and one of the main and underlying dimensions in emotional disorders. This study aims to compare interpersonal and intrapersonal models of emotion regulation in explaining depression and anxiety symptoms in college students. Methods: This is a cross-sectional study. Participants were 517 students of public universities in Tehran, Iran who were selected using multi-stage cluster sampling method. They completed the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, Interpersonal Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale, and short form of Symptom Checklist (SCL-25). Results: Intrapersonal and interpersonal emotion regulation models had a significant role in explaining depression and anxiety symptoms, where the intrapersonal emotion regulation model had a significant and stronger effect in predicting depression and anxiety symptoms (P<0.01). Conclusion: Both intrapersonal and interpersonal emotion regulation models have a role in explaining depression and anxiety symptoms and can be effective in predicting and treating emotional disorders.

As Strong as We Are United: Effects of Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Emotion Regulation on Quality of Life in Women With Breast Cancer.

Women diagnosed with breast cancer often experience unpleasant emotions, resulting in higher levels of emotional burden and decreased levels of wellbeing and quality of life. The present correlational and cross-sectional study aims to compare the implementation of two regulatory levels, intrapersonal and interpersonal (as social sharing of emotions), and two types of strategies, antecedent-focused and response-focused, and explore their impact on breast cancer patients’ perception of quality of life. Sixty-eight women previously diagnosed with the disease participated in this study, with a mean age of 63years old (SD=11.58). Data were collected through a self-report questionnaire to assess emotional experience, intrapersonal regulation, social sharing of emotions, and breast cancer-related wellbeing and quality of life. Data yielded that most of the participants regulated their negative emotions within social interactions and made more use of antecedent-focused strategies to cognitively reformulate the emotional episode. Social and family wellbeing were positively associated with antecedent-focused strategies, as well as intrapersonal and interpersonal regulatory levels. Moreover, the occurrence of sharing episodes and social interactions played an important and beneficial role on patients’ perceived quality of life. These findings reinforce the importance of promoting an adaptive intrapersonal regulation among breast cancer patients. Results also suggest that social sharing of emotions is an efficient process to help them to better cope with the psychological and emotional burden of the disease, thus positively influencing the way they perceive their social and family wellbeing, as well as their quality of life.

Emotion regulation across the lifespan: age differences in intrapersonal and interpersonal strategies for the adjustment to the COVID-19 pandemic in four countries

Objectives Studies have shown age differences in adapting to the COVID-19 pandemic. The processes explaining these age differences remain unclear. Intrapersonal and interpersonal emotion regulation play an important role in psycho-social adjustment and develop across the lifespan. This study investigated whether differences in COVID-19-related adjustment disorder symptoms can be explained by age-differences in rumination in a multi-national sample. Furthermore, linguistic indicators of ruminative processing were examined with reference to age. Methods N = 1401 participants (from USA, UK, Switzerland, Germany, aged 18–88) completed an online survey and a writing task. Measures included brooding, co-brooding, adjustment disorder symptoms, and language indicators of negative self- and communal-focus . Results Older participants reported less adjustment disorder symptoms which was mediated by less (co-)brooding. Participants reporting more (co-)brooding wrote about COVID-19 more negatively. While in younger adults more self-focus was associated with higher ruminative brooding, in older adults it was associated with less brooding. Conclusion These findings contribute to a better understanding of regulatory mechanisms that help explain age differences in mental health. They warrant further research considering age-related differences, as our results suggest not only more adaptive emotion regulation as resilience factor in older individuals but also different qualities of self-focus while processing stressful events.

Leader interpersonal emotion regulation motives, group leader–member exchange, and leader effectiveness in work groups

SummaryRecent research has shown that leader interpersonal emotion regulation is a relevant process for fostering desirable work outcomes. Expanding knowledge on this stream of research, here we argue that to have a complete view of the influence of leader interpersonal emotion regulation, the motives underlying the regulation behavior, namely, egocentric or prosocial, should also be taken into account. We draw on the informational function of interpersonal emotion regulation motives and use a multisource survey study with 99 group leaders and their 1482 group members to examine the effects of leader interpersonal emotion regulation motives. We found evidence that leader egocentric interpersonal emotion regulation motives were negatively related to group members' perceptions of the relationship quality with their leaders, expressed in the group's mean leader–member exchange (LMX), and, thereby, related to lower leader appraisals of their own effectiveness. However, these negative effects were mitigated when leaders were at the same time prosocially motivated to regulate the emotions of the members of their groups. Therefore, this study contributes to expanding theory on interpersonal emotion regulation and its application to leadership, which is informative for theory and interventions about leaders' affective influence in organizations.

Exploring the Relationship Between Interpersonal Emotion Regulation and Social Anxiety Symptoms: The Mediating Role of Negative Mood Regulation Expectancies.

BackgroundThis study aimed to investigate the relationship between interpersonal emotion regulation (IER) and social anxiety symptoms and the mediating role of negative mood regulation expectancies (NMRE). We hypothesised that IER is positively associated with social anxiety symptoms, controlling for depression and intrapersonal emotion regulation strategies of suppression and reappraisal, and NMRE mediate this relationship.MethodsStudy 1 was conducted with a student sample (N = 400) and Study 2 included a community sample with 271 participants.ResultsStudy 1 showed that, of four IER strategies, soothing and social modeling were positively, and perspective-taking was negatively related to social anxiety symptoms controlling for depression, suppression and reappraisal. Study 2 replicated these findings and extended them by showing the mediated relationship between the two IER strategies (i.e. enhancing positive affect and soothing) and social anxiety symptoms through NMRE.ConclusionsThe results contribute to the limited research on IER by portraying its relationship with social anxiety symptoms and revealing the mediating role of NMRE in this relationship.

Psychometric properties of interpersonal emotion regulation questionnaire in nonclinical and clinical population in Iran

Psychometric properties of interpersonal emotion regulation questionnaire in nonclinical and clinical population in Iran

The effect of self- and interpersonal emotion regulation on athletes’ anxiety and goal achievement in competition

ObjectivesThere exists a wealth of evidence that athletes must regulate their emotions for optimal performance and wellbeing. In addition to athletes’ attempts to regulate their own emotions, they may also attempt to regulate each other’s emotions (interpersonal emotion regulation). Though self- and interpersonal emotion regulation likely co-occur, previous research has not explored how these strategies concurrently impact athletes’ emotions and performance outcomes. In the current study, we examined whether athletes’ emotional self-regulation and the receipt of interpersonal emotion regulation from their teammates were related to their anxiety and goal achievement during competition. DesignQuantitative, cross-sectional retrospective survey design. MethodData were gathered following sport competitions from 509 participants from 50 interdependent sport teams from Canada and the UK (Mage = 19.0, SD = 3.1). ResultsAnalysis of the data using structural equation modeling revealed that after accounting for pre-competition anxiety, received interpersonal emotion regulation was not associated with anxiety during competition, though affect-worsening self-regulation was positively associated with anxiety during competition. Received interpersonal emotion regulation was also not associated with goal achievement, yet affect-improving and affect-worsening self-regulation were associated with goal achievement. Nevertheless, when the influence of emotional self-regulation on anxiety and goal achievement was set to zero, affect-improving and affect-worsening interpersonal emotion regulation were associated with anxiety during competition and affect-improving interpersonal emotion regulation was associated with goal achievement. ConclusionsThese data can be interpreted as evidence that emotion regulation actions between teammates are important for anxiety and performance outcomes, albeit this effect is attenuated in the presence of athletes’ own emotional self-regulation. These results extend the extant research on self- and interpersonal emotion regulation in sport, and in line with these observations, we highlight a number of future research opportunities for researchers examining emotion regulation in performance contexts.