Interpersonal Outcomes Research Articles

Beyond anger: emotion regulation and social connectedness in veterans with traumatic brain injury

ABSTRACTPrimary objective: Patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) often present with emotion dysregulation. Most TBI rehabilitation has addressed this impairment primarily in relation to anger, irritability and aggressiveness. Yet, emotion regulation (ER) may have broader ramifications for psychological well-being. The present study examined ER’s association to several aspects of social connectedness.Research design: Cross-sectional studyMethods and procedures: 83 veterans with TBI who were outpatients at a VA medical rehabilitation service were interviewed in their homes. A 5-item ER subscale, drawn from the Patient Competency Rating Scale, was subjected to psychometric analysis and examined as a predictor of five social connectedness measures: community reintegration (CR), interpersonal functioning, quality of relationship with key family members and social role limitations due to physical problems and due to emotional problems. Sociodemographic, military and medical information was also collected.Main outcomes and results: The ER subscale showed good psychometric properties. ER contributed significantly to CR, interpersonal functioning and limitations in social roles. This underscores ER’s role in social connectedness among veterans with TBI.Conclusions: Impairments in ER should be regarded as a risk factor for poor interpersonal outcomes, a target for mental health treatment and a focus for interventions aimed at improving psychological well-being in TBI.

The role of the therapeutic relationship in the association between interpersonal behaviors and outcome: Comparison of two competing models

Objective: The patient–therapist relationship may be the mechanism behind the effect of pretreatment interpersonal patient behaviors on the outcome of psychotherapy for depression, or the factor determining for whom interpersonal behaviors affect outcome. We seek to establish which of these two alternatives receives empirical support. Method: We conducted a secondary analysis of the findings from the Treatment for Depression Collaborative Research Program to examine two alternative models. First, a deterministic model, in which clients’ ability to create satisfactory interpersonal relationships affects their ability to build a strong therapeutic relationship, which in turn affects outcome; and second, a compensation model, in which patients in a treatment focusing on interpersonal mechanisms of change and not in placebo, who compensate for their maladaptive pretreatment interpersonal behaviors by building a strong therapeutic relationship, benefit from treatment more than do patients who cannot build such relationship. Results: The compensation, rather than the deterministic model, was supported, suggesting that the interpersonal behavior–outcome association is significantly moderated by the therapeutic relationship in interpersonal psychotherapy and not in placebo. Conclusions: Findings support an optimistic view whereby patients seeking treatment for maladaptive interpersonal behaviors can achieve good outcomes if work on interpersonal relationships is conducted in the presence of a strong therapeutic relationship. Clinical or methodological significance of this article: This study highlights an important optimistic view in which patients with maladaptive interpersonal style who can form a strong therapeutic relationship can benefit from treatment focusing on interpersonal relationships.

What an Optimist Looks Like: Separating Optimistic Bias from Social Reality

Optimists hold positive expectancies for their future, which some have suggested leads to advantages in the social realm (Carver, Scheier, & Segerstrom, 2010). Unfortunately, the research supporting this notion is scant and suffers from the confound that self-reports from optimists reflect their optimistic perspective. To address this issue, the present study examined the impact of optimism on interpersonal outcomes assessed from the perspective of those in relationships with each target. We recruited 182 participants to complete a series of psychological measures and interpersonal activities over the course of ten weeks. Participants rated themselves and each other on the five-factor traits at three stages in the developing relationship: zero-acquaintance, after their first conversation with each other, and after nine weeks of acquaintance. Two additional informants nominated by each target as those who knew them well (i.e. friends or family members) provided more extensive personality descriptions using a California Q-Set. Optimists consistently rated themselves as more agreeable and less neurotic than those low in optimism, but only the difference in neuroticism was detectable by perceivers. Furthermore, this difference was discernable only after nine-weeks of acquaintanceship had been established. Target optimism had no impact on first impressions. Although there may exist an optimistic personality profile across the five major traits, we found little evidence to suggest that anything other than lower neuroticism contributes to the impact that optimism might have on one’s social life and relationships.

Development of the Nonattachment Scale-Short Form (NAS-SF) Using Item Response Theory

Research on nonattachment has consistently shown that it is conducive to psychological well-being and interpersonal outcomes. However, there is a lack of rapid assessment that can provide valid and reliable measure among individuals with different levels of nonattachment. The present study aimed at developing a short form of the Nonattachment Scale (NAS) under the item response theory framework. Study 1 recruited 1019 participants who were mainly students and they completed the Nonattachment Scale. Based on the item information and item location, eight items were selected that yielded satisfactory internal consistency and test information. In study 2, 393 college students were recruited and the criterion validity of the 8-item Nonattachment Scale - Short Form (NAS-SF) was examined. Results showed that the 8-item NAS-SF was correlated with mindfulness (r = .54), mental well-being measures (rs = .46 to .54), psychological distress measures (rs = − .48 to − .57), and social/interpersonal measures (rs = .24 to .41). Findings suggested that the 8-item NAS-SF is a reliable and valid measure that can be applied to individuals with different levels of nonattachment in an efficient way.

Gratitude across the life span: Age differences and links to subjective well-being

Gratitude has been described as an adaptive evolutionary mechanism that is relevant to healthy psychological and interpersonal outcomes. Questions remain as to whether the presence and benefits of gratitude are consistent from young adulthood to old age; prior research has yielded mixed evidence. We examined the magnitude and direction of age differences in gratitude in three samples (combined N = 31,206). We also examined whether gratitude was associated with greater/lesser well-being at different periods in the life course. We found that the experience of gratitude was greatest in older adults and least in middle aged and younger adults. Further, we found that the associations between gratitude and subjective well-being remained relatively constant across the lifespan. Findings are discussed from a developmental perspective.

The nomological network of emotion knowledge and emotion understanding in adults: evidence from two new performance-based tests

ABSTRACTEmotion understanding, which can broadly be defined as expertise in the meaning of emotion, is a core component of emotional intelligence and facilitates better intra- and interpersonal outcomes. However, to date only very few standard tests to measure emotion understanding in healthy adults exist. Here, we present two new performance-based tests that were developed and are scored based on componential emotion theory and large-scale cross-cultural empirical findings. These instruments intend to measure facets of emotion understanding that are not included in existing tests. The first test (Geneva EMOtion Knowledge test – Blends; GEMOK-Blends) measures the ability to understand and label emotional experiences of a target person from a description of emotion features covering five emotion components (appraisal, feeling, action tendencies, expression, and physiology) embedded in a written vignette. The second test (GEMOK-Features) measures semantic knowledge about which features from each component are characteristic of emotion episodes described by a specific emotion label. In four studies, we found evidence for the good internal consistency and construct validity of these tests. Both tests were positively correlated with other emotional abilities and cognitive ability and showed meaningful associations with a variety of personality and demographic variables.

Interpersonal Mindfulness: Investigating Mindfulness in Interpersonal Interactions, co-Rumination, and Friendship Quality

There is growing interest in understanding the ways in which mindfulness influences interpersonal relationships. Two studies investigated the relationship between a newly proposed construct, interpersonal mindfulness, and the quality of a best or close friend. Interpersonal mindfulness is conceptualized as mindfulness during interpersonal interactions and includes awareness of self and others, accompanied with the qualities of nonjudgmental and nonreactive presence. Study 1 showed that interpersonal mindfulness was correlated with friendship quality, while accounting for trait mindfulness. Study 2 replicated and extended these findings by identifying and testing three possible mediators (i.e., perspective taking, basic psychological need satisfaction, and empathy) of the association between interpersonal mindfulness and friendship quality. Interrelations with co-rumination, or excessive talk about problems, were examined as well. Investigation of the psychometrics of the interpersonal mindfulness scale provided initial support for the reliability and validity. Results suggest that (1) interpersonal mindfulness is uniquely associated with the interpersonal outcome of friendship quality (controlling for trait mindfulness), whereas trait mindfulness is uniquely associated with the intrapersonal outcomes of depression and anxiety (while controlling for interpersonal mindfulness), (2) interpersonal mindfulness moderates the association of co-rumination and friendship quality, and (3) the association of interpersonal mindfulness and friendship quality is mediated by perspective taking and psychological need satisfaction. Limitations and future directions, as well as potential applied applications, are discussed.

Exploring the Benefits of Affectionate Communication: Implications for Interpersonal Acceptance–Rejection Theory

AbstractIn the past several decades, a robust line of research has developed in the field of communication exploring the interpersonal outcomes of receiving and giving affection. The present review offers an in‐depth examination of research on affectionate communication and its implications for understanding interpersonal acceptance and rejection. The review begins by introducing the primary theoretical framework used to explore affectionate communication, followed by an overview of the benefits of receiving and giving affection. Following this review, the implications of affectionate communication for acceptance–rejection researchers are presented, including a discussion of the complexities of affection and what such intricacies may mean for future theorizing in this domain. Lastly, future directions for acceptance–rejection research in light of this review are presented.

Development and validation of the single item trait empathy scale (SITES)

Empathy involves feeling compassion for others and imagining how they feel. In this article, we develop and validate the Single Item Trait Empathy Scale (SITES), which contains only one item that takes seconds to complete. In seven studies (N = 5724), the SITES was found to be both reliable and valid. It correlated in expected ways with a wide variety of intrapersonal outcomes. For example, it is negatively correlated with narcissism, depression, anxiety, and alexithymia. In contrast, it is positively correlated with other measures of empathy, self-esteem, subjective well-being, and agreeableness. The SITES also correlates with a wide variety of interpersonal outcomes, especially compassion for others and helping others. The SITES is recommended in situations when time or question quantity is constrained.

The Increment of Social Axioms over Broad Personality Traits in the Prediction of Dyadic Adjustment: An Investigation across Four Ethnic Groups

This study investigates the relationship between personality, social axioms, and dyadic adjustment. A sample of 420 participants (210 heterosexual couples), approximately evenly distributed between four ethnic backgrounds (Romanian, Hungarian, German, and Rroma), was investigated in a cross–sectional approach with the Romanian versions of the Social Axioms Survey, the Dyadic Adjustment Scale, and the Revised NEO Personality Inventory. The analyses were based on the actor–partner interdependence model. The results showed that social axioms show incremental validity over personality traits in the prediction of dyadic adjustment, attesting to the usefulness of a worldview measure in predicting interpersonal outcomes over and above that provided by a measure of personality. Three of the five dimensions of social axioms were associated with dyadic adjustment, with either actor or partner effects. A few significant differences have been found between the various ethnic groups on effects of the social axioms on dyadic adjustment: The positive actor effect of reward for application is not visible for German men, the negative partner effect of social cynicism is not detectable for Rroma men, and the negative partner effect of social complexity is not visible for Rroma women. Copyright © 2017 European Association of Personality Psychology

“Yoga resets my inner peace barometer”: A qualitative study illuminating the pathways of how yoga impacts one’s relationship to oneself and to others

ObjectivesThe purpose of this qualitative study was twofold: (1) to better understand how yoga practitioners perceive intra- and interpersonal outcomes of their yoga practice, and (2) to develop a conceptual model of yoga effects on intra- and interpersonal outcomes that may underlie the “relational” influences of yoga. DesignAs part of a larger study, 107 community-dwelling yoga practitioners (age M=41.2±15.9years) completed open-ended questions which asked questions focusing on whether yoga influences one’s relationship to oneself and to others. A subsample (n=12) completed in-depth interviews. The open-ended responses were analyzed using content analysis, and verbatim interview transcripts were analyzed for emergent themes using a constant comparison approach. ResultsFour emerging themes were identified such that practitioners talked about the ability of yoga to generate calm states, mindfulness, (self-)compassion, and a sense of connectedness. Throughout the themes, a common pattern emerged such that yoga practice first led to positive intrapersonal changes, which then influenced one’s interpersonal relationships. Based on these results, a conceptual model was developed depicting potential pathways of how yoga works to enhance relational outcomes. ConclusionFindings demonstrate the promise yoga holds to improve one’s relationship to oneself (intrapersonal) through mindfulness and self-compassion, and to others (interpersonal), through the enhancement of compassion and social connectedness, which may potentially lead to enhanced health and wellbeing outcomes. Further empirical testing of the model is warranted.

The subclinical psychopath in love: Mediating effects of attachment styles

Central to both psychopathy and insecure attachment is a failure to bond with others. In addition, avoidance is linked to both primary and secondary psychopathic variants. To date, there have been no published studies that examine psychopathic traits, attachment, and romantic relationships. We tested whether attachment avoidance mediated the psychopathy–interpersonal outcome relations. University students ( N = 167) in a romantic relationship completed measures of psychopathic traits, attachment, and romantic relationship variables. Linear regressions, univariate analyses, and multivariate analyses indicated that secondary, but not primary, traits were associated with poor relationship quality, more active prowling and less willful disinterest in alternative partners, and more deactivation and hyperactivation. Avoidance significantly mediated these relations. Therefore, improving attachment impairments may benefit individuals high in secondary traits.

Age Similarities in Interpersonal Perception and Conversation Ability

Older adults tend to perform worse on emotion perception tasks compared to younger adults. How this age difference relates to other interpersonal perception tasks and conversation ability remains an open question. In the present study, we assessed 32 younger and 30 older adults’ accuracy when perceiving (1) static facial expressions, (2) emotions, attitudes, and intentions from videos, (3) and interpersonal constructs (e.g., kinship). Participants’ conversation ability was rated by coders from a videotaped, dyadic problem-solving task. Younger adults were more accurate than older adults perceiving some but not all emotions. No age differences in accuracy were found on any perception task or in conversation ability. Some but not all of the interpersonal perception tasks were related. None of the perception tasks predicted conversation ability. Thus, although the literature suggests a robust age difference in emotion perception accuracy, this difference does not seem to transfer to other interpersonal perception tasks or interpersonal outcomes.

Therapist strategies early in therapy associated with good or poor outcomes among clients with low proactive agency

Objective: Within a mixed methods program of research the present study aimed at expanding knowledge about interactions in the initial therapeutic collaboration by combining focus on client interpersonal style and therapist contribution. Method: The study involves in-depth analyses of therapist–client interactions in the initial two sessions of good and poor outcome therapies. Based on interpersonal theory and previous research, the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems (IIP-64-C) was used to define poor outcome cases, that is, low proactive agency cases. To compare good and poor outcome cases matched on this interpersonal pattern, cases were drawn from two different samples; nine poor outcome cases from a large multi-site outpatient clinic study and nine good outcome cases from a process-outcome study of highly experienced therapists. Results: Qualitative analysis of therapist behaviors resulted in 2 main categories, fostering client’s proactive agentic involvement in change work and discouraging client’s proactive agentic involvement in change work, 8 categories and 22 sub-categories. Conclusion: The findings revealed distinct and cohesive differences in therapist behaviors between the two outcome groups, and point to the particular therapist role of fostering client agency through engagement in a shared work on change when clients display strong unassertiveness and low readiness for change.Clinical or Methodological Significance Summary: The present analysis combines focus on client interpersonal style, therapist strategies/process and outcome. The categories generated from the present grounded theory analysis may serve as a foundation for identifying interactions that are associated with agentic involvement in future process research and practice, and hence we have formulated principles/strategies that were identified by the analysis.

Neural congruence between intertemporal and interpersonal self-control: Evidence from delay and social discounting

Behavioral studies using delay and social discounting as indices of self-control and altruism, respectively, have revealed functional similarities between farsighted and social decisions. However, neural evidence for this functional link is lacking. Twenty-five young adults completed a delay and social discounting task during fMRI scanning. A spatiotemporal partial least squares analysis revealed that both forms of discounting were well characterized by a pattern of brain activity in areas comprising frontoparietal control, default, and mesolimbic reward networks. Both forms of discounting appear to draw on common neurocognitive mechanisms, regardless of whether choices involve intertemporal or interpersonal outcomes. We also observed neural profiles differentiating between high and low discounters. High discounters were well characterized by increased medial temporal lobe and limbic activity. In contrast, low discount rates were associated with activity in the medial prefrontal cortex and right temporoparietal junction. This pattern may reflect biological mechanisms underlying behavioral heterogeneity in discount rates.

Sociodemographic, clinical, and functional long-term outcomes in adolescents and young adults with mental disorders.

To examine unfavorable sociodemographic, clinical, and functional long-term outcomes for a range of adolescent mental disorders. A total number of 2210 adolescents and young adults (14-24 years at baseline, T0) from a representative community sample were prospectively followed up (T1-T3) over 10 years. DSM-IV mental disorders, sociodemographic, clinical, and functional outcomes were assessed using the DIA-X/M-CIDI and its embedded assessment modules. In (multinomial) logistic regressions adjusted for sex, age, other baseline disorders and sociodemographics, baseline anxiety, affective, substance use, somatoform and eating disorders (lifetime) predicted various unfavorable sociodemographic, clinical, and functional outcomes at T3. Particularly, strong associations were found between baseline disorders and adverse clinical outcomes at T3 (12-month diagnosis of the same/other disorder(s), drug use, suicide attempts, and help-seeking due to psychological problems). While substance use disorders were primarily associated with unfavorable sociodemographic and educational outcomes, anxiety and eating disorders were associated with unfavorable interpersonal outcomes, affective disorders with pregnancy-/childbirth-related complications and financial issues, and somatoform disorders with unfavorable educational/occupational and interpersonal outcomes. The risk of unfavorable outcomes increased with clinical severity, especially a higher number of baseline diagnoses. Our findings emphasize the importance of effective treatment of mental disorders to prevent unfavorable long-term outcomes in various life domains.

Evidence for arrogance: On the relative importance of expertise, outcome, and manner.

Arrogant behavior is as old as human nature. Nonetheless, the factors that cause people to be perceived as arrogant have received very little research attention. In this paper, we focused on a typical manifestation of arrogance: dismissive behavior. In particular, we explored the conditions under which a person who dismissed advice would be perceived as arrogant. We examined two factors: the advisee’s competence, and the manner in which he or she dismissed the advice. The effect of the advisee’s competence was tested by manipulating two competence cues: relative expertise, and the outcome of the advice dismissal (i.e., whether the advisee was right or wrong). In six studies (N = 1304), participants made arrogance judgments about protagonists who dismissed the advice of another person while the advisees’ relative expertise (compared to the advisor), their eventual correctness, and the manner of their dismissal were manipulated in between-participant designs. Across various types of decisions and advisee-advisor relationships, the results show that less expert, less correct, and ruder advisees are perceived as more arrogant. We also find that outcome trumps expertise, and manner trumps both expertise and outcomes. In two additional studies (N = 101), we examined people’s naïve theories about the relative importance of the aforementioned arrogance cues. These studies showed that people overestimate the role of expertise information as compared to the role of interpersonal manner and outcomes. Thus, our results suggest that people may commit arrogant faux pas because they erroneously expect that their expertise will justify their dismissive behavior.

Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction Mediates the Association between Self-Control Skills and Subjective Well-Being.

Although studies have shown that self-control skills (SCSs) are positively linked to both personal and interpersonal outcomes in adolescent students, studies on the putative mechanisms underlying this relationship are scarce. Drawing on Self-Determination Theory and previous studies, we theorized that the association between students’ SCSs and their subjective well-being (SWB) in school may be mediated by students’ perceived satisfaction of their basic psychological needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy. The sample consisted of 1576 Israeli adolescent students (54% girls) in grades 10–12 (mean age 16) enrolled in 20 schools. A mediation model was tested with structural equation modeling and a robust bootstrap method for testing indirect effects, controlling for school-level variance. The findings supported the hypothesized model and a post hoc multi-group comparison analysis yielded gender invariance in the model. The findings suggest that both girls and boys with high SCSs may perceive themselves as having greater needs satisfaction in school and consequently higher school-related SWB. Implications for policy and practice are discussed.

Suppression and expression of emotion in social and interpersonal outcomes: A meta-analysis.

Emotion expression is critical for the communication of important social information, such as emotional states and behavioral intentions. However, people tend to vary in their level of emotional expression. This meta-analysis investigated the relationships between levels of emotion expression and suppression, and social and interpersonal outcomes. PsycINFO databases, as well as reference lists were searched. Forty-three papers from a total of 3,200 papers met inclusion criteria, allowing for 105 effect sizes to be calculated. Meta-analyses revealed that greater suppression of emotion was significantly associated with poorer social wellbeing, including more negative first impressions, lower social support, lower social satisfaction and quality, and poorer romantic relationship quality. Furthermore, the expression of positive and general/nonspecific emotion was related to better social outcomes, while the expression of anger was associated with poorer social wellbeing. Expression of negative emotion generally was also associated with poorer social outcomes, although this effect size was very small and consisted of mixed results. These findings highlight the importance of considering the role that regulation of emotional expression can play in the development of social dysfunction and interpersonal problems. (PsycINFO Database Record

Popularity Procurement and Pay Off: Antecedents and Consequences of Popularity in the Workplace

This study examines agreeableness and work knowledge as predictors of employees’ popularity above and beyond core self-evaluation (CSE), and the moderating role of these constructs on the CSE–popularity relationship. We also investigate popularity’s effects on supervisor-rated task performance and promotion potential, and the conditional indirect effects of CSE on these outcomes via popularity. Multi-source data were collected from 213 employees, their coworkers, and direct supervisors in a Chinese mine trading company. Agreeableness predicted popularity above and beyond CSE and moderated the CSE–popularity relationship, although the direct and moderating effects of work knowledge were nonsignificant. Popularity positively influenced performance ratings but not promotion potential. Results also supported conditional indirect effects of CSE on performance ratings via popularity. The current findings underscore the importance of examining workplace popularity. Discovering agreeableness as an additional predictor of popularity and its moderation effects on the CSE–popularity link suggests that communal qualities are important for employees’ attainment of popularity. The discussion also focuses on expanding the scope of workplace popularity to include performance-related outcomes. Lastly, this study considers how employee characteristics connect to performance ratings through popularity. Workplace popularity is relatively unexplored but has tremendous organizational implications. This research advances the understanding of how to attain workplace popularity and the boundary conditions for the relationship between CSE and popularity. It also extends consequences associated with workplace popularity beyond interpersonal outcomes and assesses the role of popularity, a construct rooted in collective perception, in explaining links between employee characteristics and performance-related outcomes.