Interpersonal Intimacy Research Articles

Self-Control and Relationship

Objections to pathology-based theories of human nature have led to efforts to develop views of positive personal health. In this article we posit the need for interpersonal intimacy as one context for health and suggest that there is a similar need for positive concepts of relationships. In an effort to address this need, a control model of psychological health is applied to relationships at different developmental stages, culminating in a vision of exceptional relationship health. A case example is also included, illustrating the clinical usefulness of conceptualizing relationship along the dimensions of assertive and yielding forms of control.

Survival guilt and the Vietnam veteran.

The author describes the phenomenology and clinical characteristics of survival guilt which can be found in many Vietnam veterans. This conflict, in its most acute presentation, typically resembles an agitated depression. The syndrome is characterized by the veterans' frequent dreams of their friends dying in battle, and by their avoidance of interpersonal intimacy because they fear the other party may abandon them or die. The section on treatment recommendations emphasizes the importance for psychotherapists to confront continuously the veterans' many self-destructive patterns of behavior. Psychotherapy should also address any false beliefs the veterans may entertain regarding the nature of their survival.

Intimate Behavior and the Assessment of Benefits in Clinical Groups

In a series of studies, three measures of clinical group benefits are developed These scales assess intimate behavior—a construct hypothesized to be central to the explication of group benefits. Intimate behavior increases awareness and knowledge of the emotional, cognitive, and behavioral functioning of self (intrapersonal intimacy) and of others, and the relationship of self to others (interpersonal intimacy). The three measures developed in this study assess performance of the behaviors in a group (or any other given setting), attitudes toward the behaviors, and performance of the behaviors in every day life. Elicitation of behavior in groups is readily accomplished, but it is constrained by person and situation variables. Attitudes toward the behaviors are volatile, changes in behavior outside the group are more difficult to effect

Ego identity and intimacy status: Replication and extension.

Previous research has supported Erikson's theoretical proposition that advanced identity formation is associated with greater interpersonal intimacy. However, some writers have criticized existing studies for using cross-sectional methods and/or male subjects exclusively. Therefore, 78 college undergraduates, 28 males and 50 females, were randomly selected as participants in a larger 1-year longitudinal project to assess the identity-intimacy relationship. The Marcia (1966) Ego-Identity Interview and the Orlofsky, Marcia, and Lesser (1973) Intimacy Interview were administered to measure subjects' statuses on the two psychosocial constructs. The longitudinal data in this study indicate that identity formation maintains a trend for time-lagged and concurrent associations with intimacy development. Furthermore, occupational identity for male subjects and religious identity for female subjects were the most salient factors that contributed to advanced intimacy status. The importance of sex differences is discussed in determining the specificity of the identity-intimacy relationship.

THE PHENOMENON OF WITHDRAWAL IN RELATION TO THE AGING PROCESS: A DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVE

The disengagement theory of adaptation in the aging process developed by Cumming and Henry (1961) is challenged. It is suggested that the withdrawal phenomenon exhibited by the elderly simply reflects reduced environmental opportunities for social interaction. Despite a reduced social sphere and the prevailing negative attitudes of old age, the vast majority of the elderly make a satisfactory adjustment to their later years and are happy. Interpersonal intimacy is viewed as the key to satisfactory adjustment. A longitudinal developmental approach to the development of intimacy in the elderly is presented.

Effects of nonverbal intimacy on arousal and behavioral adjustment

The effects of two intimacy manipulations, 80% eye contact (EC) and combined lean, touch, 50% eye contact (LT), were examined in a bogus waiting period involving a male confederate-male subject pairing. Hypothesized arousal increase was found only for the LT manipulation when it occurred later, rather than earlier, in the waiting period. Associated with that increased arousal were weak tendencies for increased eye contact and talking. These results offered limited support for the arousal model of interpersonal intimacy (Patterson, 1976). However, it also appeared that the directing effect of the specific social context qualified the impact and meaning of the confederate's high intimacy.

A thematic coding system for the intimacy motive

A new thematic (TAT) measure of intimacy motivation was developed and cross-validated in four separate arousal studies using three different college populations. A brief sketch of the derived thematic scoring system for intimacy motivation was presented. The goal state of the intimacy motive was defined as experiencing a warm, close, and communicative exchange with another person. In a college sample, subjects scoring high on the intimacy motive were rated by friends and acquaintances as significantly more “warm,” “natural,” “sincere,” “loving,” and “appreciative” and less “dominant,” “outspoken,” and “self-centered” than subjects scoring lower. The results were discussed in terms of the theories of Sullivan on the need for interpersonal intimacy, Maslow on growth motivation and “B-love,” Bakan on communion, and Buber on the I-Thou relation. Differences between the new coding system and the need for Affiliation ( n Aff) system for scoring imaginative productions were also suggested.

An investigation of the arousal model of interpersonal intimacy

In a study designed to test Patterson's arousal model of nonverbal intimacy, the heartrate, gaze, smiles, body orientation, and body lean of each of 40 female subjects who interacted with an accomplice were measured. Within a factorial design, subjects were induced to view more or less favorably the accomplice, who subsequently increased or maintained the same level of nonverbal immediacy as she did in an earlier session. It was hypothesized that (1) an increase in the accomplice's immediacy would effect an increase in subjects' arousal (heartrate) which, in turn, (2) would lead to either reciprocal or compensatory nonverbal adjustments by subjects, depending on whether they viewed the accomplice more or less favorably, respectively. The results supported the first but not the second hypothesis. However, interpretation of the results suggests, nevertheless, that they may be consistent with the arousal model.

Concepts of intimacy in the general population.

A random sample of 50 adults in the general population received an open ended interview regarding their concepts of intimacy. A second random sample of 24 couples from the general population and 24 clinical couples received a standardized interview in which concepts of intimacy were systematically rated to develop an operational definition of the dimensions of intimacy. Self-disclosure was identified as a fundamental aspect of intimacy in interpersonal relationships and marriage. Expression of affection, compatibility, cohesion, identity, and the ability to resolve conflict were also considered important aspects of intimacy. Sexual satisfaction was considered less important than previous definitions of intimacy have suggested. The perception of his or her parents' level of intimacy was thought to influence the subject's own interpersonal relationships. Couples with marital maladjustment and/or psychiatric illness were less aware of aspects of their marriage which influence intimacy. They more frequently disagreed that sexuality influenced their level of intimacy. The study suggests that self-disclosure and parental interpersonal intimacy may be fundamental factors in marital adjustment which merit further research.

Marital intimacy, psychosomatic symptoms, and cognitive therapy

The marriages of patients with psychosomatic illness involving chronic physical symptoms of obscure etiology–are often superficially adjusted, but have a significant lack of interpersonal intimacy. Furthermore, the physical symptoms of one partner may be used as an indirect attempt to overcome a frustrating lack of communication. The author describes an approach to family therapy that enables the spouses in such marriages to open up to each other, increasing intimacy in their marriages and im proving chronic psychosomatic symptoms that have been perpetuated by marital maladjustment.

SPECIAL EDUCATION FOR THE ELDERLY: RATIONALE AND APPROACH

Elderly persons are identified as a potential population for the delivery of special education services. Evidence is presented on the kinds and extent of exceptional cases that exist in a rapidly growing sector of the U.S. community. Attention is focused on those senior citizens who have functioned adequately for most of their lives but have acquired physical, mental, and social disabilities as a result of the aging process and mandatory retirement. In contrast to the predominantly medical and recreational approach of health and welfare agencies, this paper proposes a comprehensive educational program for the exceptional elderly that is based on special education principles and methodology. The needs of the deviant senior citizen are delineated and a diagnostic‐prescriptive program is described. The program is behaviorally oriented and deals with seven crucial life‐adjustment areas of the aged: (1) daily activities and routines, (2) home‐management, (3) health care, (4) interpersonal intimacy, (5) new rol...

Students' Perceptions of the College Milieu

In order to examine perceptions of the social environment, 109 college undergraduates rated the similarity of all nonredundant pairs of 30 representative social situations. An additional 70 subjects rated each situation on 38 bipolar scales descriptive of the situation's perceived properties and the subject's typical behavior and affect in that situation. A nonmetric multidimensional scaling solution in four dimensions provided an optimal fit to the similarity data. The dimensions were interpreted as Interpersonal Intimacy, Group vs. Individual Activity, Social Isolation, and Behavioral Conformity. The findings are discussed in terms of their relationship to previous investigations of the perception of social episodes and their implications for person-situation interaction research.

Defensiveness, intimacy, and heterosexual attraction

A previous study by Dion and Dion (1975) revealed that highly defensive individuals were less likely to report having experienced romantic love than less defensive persons. The hypothesis that this finding might reflect differential reactions to interpersonal intimacy was directly examined in the present study using a self-disclosure paradigm. To assess subjects' defensiveness, undergraduate women first completed the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale. In a second session, subjects were exposed to high and low disclosing targets of the same and opposite sex and chose discussion topics for each target. On intimacy of self-disclosure, a “reciprocity effect” occurred: subjects chose more intimate topics for high vs low-disclosing targets. However, highly defensive women gave a less favorable self-presentation to male vs female targets. They also expressed less liking for high compared to low intimate targets and males vs females than less defensive subjects. The implications of these results for heterosexual attraction were discussed.

Arousal change and cognitive labeling: Pursuing the mediators of intimacy exchange

In recent years a considerable amount of research on nonverbal behavior has focused on identifying patterns of exchange in the component behaviors of interpersonal intimacy. The rapidly developing empirical research, occasionally giving hope for some convergence in the results, has precipitated efforts at explaining the processes underlying the exchange of intimacy. This paper attempts to analyze issues surrounding two of the more promising mediators of intimacy exchange—arousal change and cognitive labeling. This speculative discussion is offered as a means of stimulating several specific and empirically testable questions which may promote our understanding of the intimacy exchange process.

Intimacy and Crises in Adulthood

Even though interpersonal intimacy has been proposed as a vital developmental task in the achievement of adulthood (Erikson, 1963) there has been little systematic study of intimate relationships as a psychological resource in transactions and crises of the adult life course, including those resulting from sociohistorical change. Both the high degree of complexity and relativity of the concept of intimacy, as well as the American male's traditional flight from intimacy, contribute to its lack of exploration. It is the thesis of this article that in the absence of overwhelming external challenge, most individuals find the motivation to live autonomous and satisfying lives only through one or more mutually intimate dyadic relationships. Some preliminary evidence in support of this thesis is presented showing marked life stage and sex differences. In addition a theoretical framework for the study of psychosocial change in adulthood focusing on areas of commitment, juxtaposed with some evidence, suggests a more flexible life stage theory than that proposed by Erikson (1963). The implications of intimacy as a resource are discussed for two adult risk groups: middle-aged women in the post-paternal stage of life and middle-aged men who are "overwhelmed" by life stresses.

An arousal model of interpersonal intimacy.

A theoretical model designed to explain and predict reactive changes in the expression of interpersonal intimacy is presented. The model basically proposes that in an interaction, sufficient changes in one person's intimacy behaviors (e.g., interpersonal distance, eye contact, touch) precipitate arousal change in the other person. Depending upon the type of relationship, the setting, and other factors, this arousal change may be labeled either a positive or negative emotional state. The model predicts that positively labeled states facilitate reciprocal or enhancing reactions to the other person's intimacy changes, while negatively labeled states facilitate compensatory reactions. Applications and limitations of the model are discussed. Research into the role of nonverbal communication in social interaction has increased rapidly over the last several years. Although there is considerable disagreement regarding the use of the label communication to describe these behaviors (see Ekman & Friesen, 1969; Wiener, Devoe, Rubinow, & Geller, 1972), there is little doubt that a wide variety of nonverbal behaviors is important in the interaction process. Argyle and Dean (196S) have suggested that one set of these behaviors, primarily nonverbal and including interpersonal distance, eye contact, leaning, smiling, and intimacy of topic, is critical in indicating interpersonal intimacy. Mehrabian (1969) has discussed many of the same behaviors in a review and has used the label immediacy to refer to a limited number of dimensions including touch, distance, eye contact, body lean, and body orientation. Mehrabian cited considerable evidence indicating that increased immediacy in one or more of these dimensions is related to a more positive attitude toward another. Thus, both Argyle and Dean (1965) and Mehrabian (1969) seem to be describing a common process in postulating a direct relationship between in

An arousal model of interpersonal intimacy.

An arousal model of interpersonal intimacy.

Compensation in Nonverbal Immediacy Behaviors: A Review

The relationships among the nonverbal immediacy behaviors are examined in the context of Argyle and Dean's (1965) hypothesis of compensation. The immediacy behaviors, which include physical distance, eye contact, body orientation, and body lean, are critical in the non-verbal communication of interpersonal attitudes. The process of compensation predicts that when an equilibrium point is reached in the nonverbal expression of interpersonal intimacy, any substantial change in one of the behaviors requires a reciprocal change in one or more of the other behaviors. Both correlational and experimental evidence support the proposed compensatory process. The problems involved in evaluating the relevant research and the implications for further work are discussed.