International Whaling Commission Research Articles

Fisheries Governance: The Search for Effective Management and the Illusion of Control

The fish we catch are a very small part of all creatures that live in the oceans. Once put on land many fish products circulate in complex auction, processing, distribution and consumption patterns. The history of ‘governance’ of marine fisheries includes cases that are considered clear successes—the global effectiveness of the International Whaling Commission—and others resulting in abject failure like the cod fishery near Newfoundland; most documented cases seem to straddle somewhere in between, a fisheries purgatory. This essay suggests that the outcome of our focus in the recent past: i.e., to privatise fishing rights in mostly advanced economies and apply theories and markets maximizing single objectives has been a mixed bag. To better address evolving energy efficiency requirements, strong demands to protect the marine environment and coastal communities, and international political developments an approach will be required in the future whereby multiple parties are given more responsibility to negotiate a politically acceptable consensus defining the—short and long-term—future of the sector and its governance.

Update on the status of gray whales since the 2020 Implementation Review

The International Whaling Commission’s Scientific Committee conducts regular Implementation Reviews (IRs) of the biology, threats and status of whale species subject to aboriginal subsistence whaling. The last IR of plans for hunting eastern North Pacific (ENP) gray whales by the Chukotka Natives of the Russian Federation and the Makah Tribe of the United States of America occurred in 2020. This paper presents a review of new scientific findings on gray whales to assess whether the current status of the stock(s) is within the parameter space tested in the 2020 IR. Updated information on gray whale stock structure hypotheses, abundance and calf productivity, health and strandings, human removals by hunting and non‐hunting sources, population growth rates, immigration into the Pacific Coast Feeding Group, parameterisation of the Makah hunt, and future episodic mortality events (EMEs) were reviewed for this assessment. For almost all factors, it appears that the current dynamics of the ENP gray whale population are within the parameter space evaluated in 2020 IR. The exception is that EMEs affecting whales in the ENP are occurring more frequently and at a greater magnitude than previously evaluated. However, preliminary evaluations suggest that the performances of the Gray Whale Strike Limit Algorithm (SLA) and Makah Management Plan are robust to recent and future EMEs of Northern Feeding Group gray whales and reductions of productivity of the Pacific Coast Feeding Group, at least under the initial parameterisations. We therefore conclude that there is no compelling need for a Special IR prior to the next scheduled IR in 2026, while noting that additional abundance data for 2022/23 and 2023/24 analysed after drafting this paper could strengthen or weaken the evidence for this conclusion.

Investigating the influence of minor krill-predators on the krill-predator dynamics of the Antarctic ecosystem in the International Whaling Commission’s Management Area II

Krill (Euphausia superba), a small pelagic crustacean. is the largest food resource serving many predators in the Antarctic ecosystem. Given the recent slow expansion of the krill fishery, interest is increasing on how best to harvest krill without unduly impacting its natural predators. The Mori-Butterworth Antarctic ecosystem model attempted to explain the dynamics of the ‘major’ predators through predator-prey interactions alone. That model considered blue, fin, humpback and minke whales, and crabeater and Antarctic fur seals. Here, this model is expanded to include ‘minor’ krill-predators, such as mackerel icefish. It focuses on a smaller scale, roughly corresponding to IWC Management Area II. Results suggest a meaningful difference (historical abundance trajectories differing by more than 5% on average over time) when including ‘minor’ predators. Hence, at an area-specific level, ‘minor’ predators should be considered for further models of at least certain sectors of the Antarctic, as they may meaningfully influence the dynamics of krill and its ‘major’ predators. This in turn could impact management decisions for the krill fishery, as regards optimal krill harvesting.

LEGALITAS WILAYAH TERITORIAL AUSTRALIA DI BENUA ANTARTIKA DALAM PENANGKAPAN IKAN PAUS DI AUSTRALIAN ANTARCTIC TERRITORY BERDASARKAN UNCLOS 1982

Japan through the JARPA program (Japanese Whale Research Program under Special Permit in the Antarctic) from 1987-2005 applied for a special permit to conduct whaling to the International Whaling Commission (IWC). In 2005 Japan resumed the JARPA program through the Second Phase of the Japanese Whaling Research Program under Special Permit in the Antarctic (JARPA II) policy. Related to this, the problem formulation of this article is: Is the territorial area owned by Australia on the Antarctic continent in accordance with the 1959 Antarctic Treaty? Then, how is the implementation of the principle of common heritage of mankind by Australia in the case of JARPA II? The type of research used in writing this article is normative juridical and the data used is secondary data, and the way of drawing conclusions in this research is done deductively. The Results of this research is that the claim owned by Australia in the AAT is valid, because based on its history, Australia already owned the area long before the ratification of the 1959 Antarctic Treaty. Furthermore, the conclusion is the country has actively sought to protect and promote the sustainability of natural resources in the AAT.

The SOWER programme in the Antarctic: Background, aims and objectives

The International Whaling Commission (IWC) imposed limits on the catch of Antarctic minke whales close to the start of commercial whaling in the 1970s. These management efforts were hampered by the challenge of obtaining robust estimates of population size. Contemporary whale assessments largely relied on measuring changes in availability as a result of exploitation – usually catch per unit effort (CPUE). However, this approach was largely impractical for Antarctic minke whales due to: (a) the short time series of CPUE data; (b) the setting of relatively conservative catch limits, so that changes in CPUE due to exploitation were difficult to detect; and (c) the possibility that abundance had been increasing before this time due to over‐exploitation of other baleen whales. The IWC initiated a series of assessment cruises in 1978 designed to obtain abundance estimates for targeted management areas in the Antarctic. Designed by the IWC’s Scientific Committee, these cruises were independent of whaling operations. The vessels were chartered whale catchers provided by Japan for the duration of the programme – and by the Soviet Union for a period of seven years. With the eventual participation of 86 scientists from 16 IWC member states, this programme became a key part of the International Decade of Cetacean Research (IDCR), launched in 1975 as a response to the 1972 Stockholm Resolution that called for a 10‐year moratorium on commercial whaling and the intensification of research efforts. While originally planned as ‘Discovery’ marking and sighting cruises, the programme eventually relied almost exclusively on sighting methods. Lasting over 30 years and involving three circumnavigations of the Southern Ocean, it became one of the largest whale monitoring exercises ever undertaken.

Overview of the SOWER cruise circumpolar acoustic survey data and analyses of Antarctic blue whale calls

The International Whaling Commission (IWC) carried out blue whale research within its annual Southern Ocean Whale and Ecosystem Research (SOWER) cruises between 1996 and 2010. Over 700 sonobuoys were deployed to record blue whale vocalisations during 11 Antarctic and three low‐latitude blue whale cruises off Australia, Madagascar and Chile. The recorded acoustic files from Antarctic deployments were collated and reviewed to develop a database of digital acoustic files and the associated deployment station metadata of 7,486 acoustic files from 484 stations. Acoustic files were analysed using the automated detection template and visual verification method. We found a significant difference between the total number of acoustic recording hours (2,481) reported in the associated cruise reports and the currently available number of acoustic recording hours (1,541). Antarctic blue whale vocalisations (9,315 D‐calls and 24,902 Z‐calls) were detected on 4,183 out of the total 7,486 acoustic files. December had the lowest call rates; January and February yielded high call rates. While most sonobuoys (63%) were deployed between 1800hrs and 0600hrs, the majority of calls (62%) were detected during observation periods between 0600hrs and 1800hrs. The difference between the available and reported data is a significant concern. Reconciliation of these and any future IWC acoustic data is strongly recommended.

A Whale of a Blindspot: The “Effectiveness” of Bribes, Threats, and Socialization in the International Whaling Commission

This paper contributes to broader efforts to de-center and historicize IR theory by bringing into question dominant narratives about developing country behavior at the International Whaling Commission (IWC). This literature either neglects, or actively erases any possibility of developing country agency; different blindspots work to the same effect, whereby developing country behavior is assumed rather than investigated, and behavioral change, such as a decision to join the IWC, vote a certain way, or abide by the whaling moratorium, is driven mostly by exogenous factors—threats, bribes, and persuasion. If a developing country choosing a pro-whaling stance is evidence of vote-buying, and an anti-whaling stance is evidence of coercion or socialization, then great power agency is assumed to exist and matter without being demonstrated—and the possibility of agency is denied to most of the world. I use the case of Brazil, the last country to give up whaling in the American continent, to de-center and historicize important whaling-related decisions made from the 1950s–1990s. Brazil voted against the commercial whaling moratorium in 1982 but has since given up whaling and become a leader in whale conservation. The empirical analysis not only finds scant support for the dominant explanations, but it also challenges them on several grounds—and thus underscores the need for theoretical lenses that allow for developing countries’ agencies to be acknowledged. More than contributing to inclusive scholarship, taking alternative perspectives seriously is imperative for more just conservation practice, and more legitimate global governance.

Report of the Workshop on the Conservation Management Plan for the Southern Right Whale Southeast Atlantic Population (Curitiba, Brazil, 1-2 June 2022)

How to cite: International Whaling Commission, 2023. Report of the Scientific Committee: Report of the Workshop on the Conservation Management Plan for the Southern Right Whale Southeast Atlantic Population. J. Cetacean Res. Manage. (Suppl.) 25: 291-310.

Report of the Workshop on Hector’s and Māui Dolphins in New Zealand: Consideration of Spatial Risk Assessment of Threats (Bled, Slovenia, 22-23 April 2023)

How to cite: International Whaling Commission, 2023. Report of the Scientific Committee: Report of the Workshop on Hector’s and Māui Dolphins in New Zealand: Consideration of Spatial Risk Assessment of Threats. J. Ceatcean Res. Manage. (Suppl.) 25: 211-287.

A review of post-whaling abundance, trends, changes in distribution and migration patterns, and supplementary feeding of Southern Hemisphere humpback whales

Southern Hemisphere humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) were heavily targeted during modern commercial whaling operations, with some 216,000 individuals killed between 1903 and 1973. That impacted the abundance of all the seven breeding stocks of the species. Most of these stocks have been recovering from whaling pressure although the understanding of the current growth rates of some stocks, and how the rates compare across stocks are lacking. Updated information is fundamental for understanding the species’ current status, and to support the review of management plans promoting its protection and recovery, especially considering current changes in ocean environments due to climate change. This work offers a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge on Southern Hemisphere humpback whales breeding stocks’ status. The aim is to provide information on their post-whaling growth trends and changes in distribution and migration patterns. Within that, records of supplementary feeding records (i.e. feeding beyond their formally described feeding grounds) are described. We have also identified knowledge gaps and note that the establishment of research collaborations, as well as standard methodologies for data collection can be important steps for the acquisition of better comparable data sets for the analysis of the current status of humpback whales and to fill such gaps. The compiled information provided can be used as part of an In-Depth Assessment of the species by the International Whaling Commission.

The Challenge of the Quorum at the International Whaling Commission

The failure to adopt a South Atlantic Whale Sanctuary (SAWS) under the ambit of the International Whaling Commission (IWC) was twice caused by a deliberate breaking of the quorum by those members opposing the establishment of the SAWS. This situation has led the IWC to initiate the process of amending its Rules of Procedure (RoPs) to clarify whether the quorum is reached by simple attendance at the meeting or by being present in the room in which the session is held. This article provides some background on the issue at hand and analyses the RoPs of other bodies and meetings concerning the quorum. It then discusses the RoPs of the IWC and provides an analysis of the terms used in the document, after which the challenge of the quorum with regard to absentee voting is touched upon. Based on this discussion, this article provides further proposals for the amendment of the RoPs that, in the author’s view, would be beneficial for eradicating diverging interpretations.

The future of the South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands marine protected area in a changing environment: The choice between industrial fisheries, or ecosystem protection

South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (SGSSI) comprise an Overseas Territory of the UK. For over two centuries, the islands and surrounding waters were subject to serial over-exploitation of commercially valuable marine species. First seals, then whales, and later some species of fish were harvested to virtual economic extinction. Today, exploitation is strictly regulated: through the multilateral Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources; through the commercial whaling moratorium of the International Whaling Commission; and now, increasingly, through local sovereign government legislation. Commercial fisheries still operate for three species of fish and one species of crustacean, Antarctic krill. Here, I consider aspects of these fisheries, to help inform the current review of the SGSSI Marine Protected Area (MPA), highlighting how future management must take into account important ongoing changes in this biodiverse ecosystem. Two issues are of paramount importance: ongoing recovery of baleen whale species; and climate change. Both increase uncertainty for fisheries managers, so that considerations about their implications must now be directly included into the management of harvested and dependent species. With the recovery of some previously exploited species, and ongoing recovery of others, the MPA could now be managed with additional ecologically-appropriate large no-take areas, commensurate with increasing levels of ocean protection advocated for by a growing number of scientists and governments. Spatial protection reflecting the habitat use of baleen whales and their prey, krill, would, through umbrella protection, also protect other biodiversity integral to the operation of the marine ecosystem.

Investigations of an Aboriginal Whaling Management Procedure using Adaptive Kalman Filtering

The feasibilty of using Kalman Filter methods as the basis for an Aboriginal Whaling Management Procedure is explored in this paper. Adaptive Kalman Filters are used to obtain estimates of the stock size and posterior probability distributions for MSY rate (MSYR) and the pre-exploitation stock size K. A set of catch control laws is then used on these estimates of stock size, which together with the posterior distributions of the various combinations of MSYR and K, gives a cumulative distribution function for the strike limit. The eventual strike limit is then determined as a pre-specified percentile of this distribution. The procedure is tested on some Evaluation Trials set by the Standing Working Group on Aboriginal Whaling Management Procedures of the International Whaling Commission (IWC) Scientific Committee. The estimation of a bias factor was considered and results are presented.

An examination of certain of the assumptions made in the Bayesian approach used to assess the eastern North Pacific stock of gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus)

An assessment of the eastern North Pacific stock of gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus) is conducted using a variant of the Bayesian stock assessment method of Wade (2002). This variant is based on the BALEEN II population dynamics model and uses parameters whose values are more familiar to members of the International Whaling Commission’s Scientific Committee. The sensitivity of the results to changes to some of the specifications used in the assessment is examined. The results are shown to be relatively insensitive to the first year considered in the analysis and the year for which a prior on absolute abundance is specified. An alternative Bayesian assessment method which involves projecting the population forward from pre-exploitation equilibrium in 1600 is also considered. As expected from previous assessments, results from this method are unable to mimic the recent trends in absolute abundance obtained from shore counts and are inconsistent with the fact that the fishery was commercially extinct by the end of the 19th Century. Allowing for underestimation of historical commercial and aboriginal catches provides improved consistency with recent trends in abundance but does not resolve these problems completely. The impact of process error (in the form of temporally correlated fluctuations in calf survival) on the dynamics of the population is found to be largely inconsequential in terms of resolving the inconsistency between historical catches and recent estimates of abundance.

Movements of humpback whales in Oceania, South Pacific

To investigate movements of humpback whales among breeding and migratory areas of Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean, comparisons of individually identified whales were undertaken using catalogues from New Caledonia, Tonga, New Zealand, the Cook Islands and French Polynesia. These locations probably represent wintering grounds or migratory areas for the Group V and VI stocks, as recognised by the International Whaling Commission for management purposes. Comparisons were also made to small samples of photos from Colombia, Ecuador and the Antarctic Peninsula, representing wintering and feeding grounds of the Group I stock. Overall, the combined catalogues contained photographs of 912 individual whales, 767 of which were from Oceania. Twelve fluke matches were made, indicating movement between the following areas: New Caledonia and New Zealand (2); New Caledonia and Tonga (6, plus one made by dorsal fin); Tonga and the Cook Islands (2); the Cook Islands and French Polynesia (1, plus one made by dorsal fin); and between Ecuador and the Antarctic Peninsula (1). These results add to previously known connections between eastern Australia and the westerly component of Oceania (New Caledonia, Tonga and New Zealand). The data also suggest little movement between Oceania and Area I (western South America and the Antarctic Peninsula), although sample sizes for the latter region were too small to conclude this with certainty. The documented movement of some whales among portions of Oceania indicates that stock assessments based on combining regional estimates of abundance are likely to be positively biased, although this may be countered by problems of heterogeneity in sampling effort and whale distribution. In contrast with the recovery exhibited in Area IV and in the western portion of Area V, humpback whale abundance appears to remain low in Oceania, presumably because of overexploitation in the feeding grounds of Area VI and the easterly component of Area V.

Empirical estimation of safe aboriginal whaling limits for bowhead whales

This paper provides a complete description of a Strike Limit Algorithm (SLA) considered by the International Whaling Commission (IWC) for the management of hunting of the Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort Seas stock of bowhead whales by native Alaskans to meet their cultural and subsistence needs. The algorithm applies a statistical estimation and optimisation strategy to extract the best features of selected SLAs to form a Bayes rule estimator. It focuses on safely satisfying moderate subsistence need, while favouring stock protection by setting strike limits below what would be required to fully satisfy need in the final portion of this century if need were more than doubled.

The effect of age and sex selective harvest patterns for baleen whales

The taking of calves and females accompanied by calves is prohibited under the original and current forms of the Schedule of the International Whaling Commission. Proposed regulations under the Revised Management Scheme would reduce catch limits according to the proportion of females in the landings when females make up more than one-half of the landings. The implications of regulations on age, sex and reproductive status were explored by examining the relative impacts of baleen whale harvests with different age, sex and female reproductive status selectivity patterns using a matrix population model. The effects of 11 harvest patterns with varying selectivity for females and calves were measured by computing the fraction of the population that would have to be killed to reduce the growth rate of the population model to zero and the corresponding fraction of the population that would be landed (harvest fraction). The harvest impact per whale landed was measured for each selectivity pattern by expressing the harvest fraction as a percentage of the value of that fraction for a harvest random across age, sex and reproductive status. The harvest impacts per whale landed of the 11 patterns ranged from 64% greater to 29% lower than a random harvest. The patterns with the lowest harvest impact per whale landed were the pattern consistent with the IWC Schedule of prohibiting harvest of calves and females accompanied by calves, and the pattern of harvesting only calves. The harvest selectivity patterns which increased the vulnerability of females had the greatest impact. Relative to the IWC’s Revised Management Procedure, this increased female vulnerability was roughly compensated for by the decrease in catch limits as the proportion of females in the catches increased.

A review of bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) stock identity

For management purposes, the Scientific Committee of the International Whaling Commission has considered bowhead whales as having five stocks (geographically distinct segments of the population): Spitsbergen, Davis Strait, Hudson Bay, Okhotsk Sea and Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort Seas (B-C-B). These divisions are defined primarily by known distribution and seasonal movements. Historically, bowhead whales had a circumarctic distribution, with several periods of range expansion and contraction depending upon access through Arctic straits. Heavy exploitation by pre-20th century commercial whalers reduced bowhead whale abundance, further segregating stocks. A portion of the B-C-B stock escaped whalers by migrating into the pack ice each spring and summering in the Beaufort Sea. Few bowhead whales are now found in the summer in the Chukchi or Bering Seas. The distribution of this species should be considered labile, affected by sea ice and availability of prey, a factor that improves the likelihood of genetic mixing between stocks. Genetic variability has remained relatively high in spite of the severe depletion of the population, and there is no evidence of any recent genetic bottleneck. Besides geographic distribution and genetics, stock identity may be studied via morphological differences, reidentification of individuals between different stock areas, acoustic signatures, pollutant burdens, parasites and predators, feeding ecology and conception dates. Harpoon heads, research tags and lens racemisation indicate that bowhead whales are long-lived, can travel over large areas and may mix among stocks. Because conception occurs during or near the time of the spring migration, there are opportunities for genetic mixing among whales that might use different summering areas.

The abundance of blue whales on the Madagascar Plateau, December 1996

As part of the International Whaling Commission’s SOWER blue whale research programme, two sighting vessels, the Shonan Maru and the Shonan Maru No.2, surveyed the Madagascar Plateau between 25° and 35°S, 40° and 45°E, in December 1996. A total of 95 sightings of 110 blue whales (assigned in the field as pygmy blue whales – see discussion), 14 sightings of 21 blue whales (subspecies undetermined) and 12 sightings of 13 ‘like blue’ whales was made in 23 days. In the first half of the survey, the whole research area was covered in a mainly pre-determined zigzag search pattern, and the associated sightings and effort have been used to derive density estimates for blue whales for the area. Sightings in the second half of the survey, where effort was directed at blue whale concentrations, have only been used to provide supplementary data for calculation of the effective search half-width and mean school size. The resulting population estimate is 424 (CV = 0.42), or 472 (CV = 0.48) whales when ‘like blue’ sightings are included. Dive times and surfacing behaviour recorded in just over 21h of monitoring suggest that the assumption that all groups on the trackline were seen (g(0) = 1) is reasonable. As the geographical extent of the survey area was substantially less than that of past catches of blue whales in the region in December, this estimate must refer to only a portion (possibly about one third) of the total population. Some evidence of feeding on euphausiids in the region was detected, possibly as a consequence of a localised upwelling cell at the southern tip of Madagascar.

Development of a new SNP panel for bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus)

Population genetic research is a critical tool for the conservation and management of marine mammals and other species.  The bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) is subject to aboriginal subsistence hunting in Alaska, Canada, Chukotka, and Greenland and managed by the International Whaling Commission for all those countries except Canada.  Genetic studies support conservation management plans and the determination of safe hunting quotas by providing information on levels of genetic diversity, estimates of abundance and effective population size, and stock separation.  Because bowhead populations are monitored in several countries, including genetic monitoring, there is a need for methods that can be consistently used in multiple labs that provide comparable data that can be publicly shared and built upon by successive studies.  Here we present a new panel of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), derived from multiple bowhead populations, that meet those criteria.  We describe the use of the Fluidigm SNPtype assay for analyzing 69 autosomal, 6 X-chromosome, and 1 Y-chromosome SNPs.  Results indicate that the methods herein are reliable and have low error rates.  Because SNPs are discrete sequence-based genetic markers, the panel of loci described here can be replicated, used in different labs, and are directly comparable, making SNPs more useful than existing microsatellite markers.