Internal Reforming Research Articles

Efficient conversion of ethanol to electricity using large-scale flat-tube solid oxide fuel cells

Conversion of renewable energy sources like bioethanol to electricity using solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) is promising to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels and to mitigate global warming. However, direct ethanol-fed SOFCs are susceptible to carbon deposition on Ni-based anode. In this study, the power generation from and degradation mechanism of large-scale flat-tube SOFCs by direct internal reforming of ethanol are investigated. The steam/carbon (S/C) ratio causes minor influence on the cell performance but considerably affects the long-term durability. Elevating temperature improves ethanol conversion rate and cell performance. Ethanol is efficiently reformed by the thick anode support and long anode channels, with low selectivity for CH4 and C2H4. Stable power generation with current density of 200 mA/cm2 is obtained over 300 h under S/C = 2 and 3 at 800 °C. Due to the high operating temperature and complex cell structure, the in-situ measurements of the temperature and gas compositions within the cell, related to carbon deposition, are difficult. The distributions of the gas compositions and temperature within the cell before and after the durability test are clarified by simulation. Simulation results reveal that, in addition to CH4 and C2H4, the cold zone near inlet contributes to carbon formation.

The debt bias in company financing decisions - problems and possible solutions

Purpose : The purpose of the present article is to compare the relative strengths and weaknesses of thin capitalisation rules and allowances for corporate equity which are the main approaches used in modern tax systems to address the debt bias and have been an integral part of proposals for international coordination of corporate income taxation. Methodology: The theoretical methods applied in the article are review of the existing literature on the topic and comparative analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the main approaches to the debt bias. Results: Although thin capitalisation rules and allowances for corporate equity contribute to the reduction of the problems associated with the debt bias, both types of methods have their limitations. The two approaches are analysed in the article from the perspective of international reform proposals within the BEPS project and the EU as the effective elimination of the distortions caused by the debt bias can be achieved only in coordinated manner. Originality : The paper adds to the growing body of literature on the topic by summarising the main strengths and weaknesses of the two main methods for resolving the debt bias and analysing them from the perspective of the reforms of international tax rules. Keywords: Corporate income taxation, Debt bias, Thin capitalisation rules, Allowances for corporate equity, International tax coordination https://doi.org/10.58869/EJABM008/SI05

Theoretical analysis of mixed open-circuit potential for high temperature electrochemical cells electrodes

The Nernst equilibrium potential calculates the theoretical OCV, which estimates the best performance achievable by an electrochemical cell. When multiple semi-reactions (or multiple ionic species) are active in one of the electrodes, the calculation of the theoretical OCV is not straightforward, since different Nernst potentials are associated to each semi-reaction. In this paper, analytical equations for calculation of the theoretical OCV are developed, using the mixed potential theory. The case of H2 and CO co-oxidation (or H2O and CO2 co-reduction) in solid oxide cells is used as a reference case, but similar conclusions can be drawn for other equivalent cases. OCV data from literature are used to calibrate and validate the model. The relative reaction rate of H2 and CO semi-reactions is estimated within the calibration process, and the result is in line with assumptions and suggestions given by other authors. The validation procedure shows predicted OCV values in line with experimental literature data, except for mixtures with relatively large CH4 concentration (e.g., 8%), for which the OCV is significantly underestimated. This is expected when thermochemical reactions, in parallel to electrochemical reactions occur, since the additional H2 produced by internal steam methane reforming is not accounted within the local mixed potential model. A fuel cell polarization model is developed based on the results from the calibration procedure, and it is used to predict the polarization behavior of an SOFC fed with a H2-H2O-CO-CO2 fuel mixture. It is found that either H2 or CO may be reduced rather than oxidized via an equivalent electrochemical water-gas-shift reaction.

Performance characterization of metal-supported solid-oxide fuel cell stacks at elevated pressure

In this paper, we present results on performance characterization of solid-oxide fuel cell stacks at elevated pressures up to 6 bara. Stacks are designed and built by Ceres Power, Ltd., and are rated at 1- and 5- kWe. Fuel streams include H2/N2 mixtures, synthetic natural-gas reformate, and simulated anode tail-gas recycle. Elevated operating pressure serves to increase stack electrochemical performance, with the most-pronounced gains found up to 4 bara. Pressurized operation reduces the extent of methane conversion, promoting more-uniform internal reforming and cooling within the stack. Such cooling is critical at higher-current conditions. A previously developed one-dimensional computational stack model is used to provide insight into stack operation. Pressurization is found to slightly increase internal thermal gradients, while promoting more-uniform reactant-concentration profiles across the cell, reducing the likelihood of local fuel starvation. The high fuel dilution brought by anode recycle can modestly decrease stack performance; however, this decrease is recovered through elevated-pressure operation at 3 bara. Anode recycle further promotes compositional uniformity across the cell. These results reflect that pressurized operation can promote stack performance, while potentially promoting long-term stack durability through uniformity in stack environmental conditions.

Causes and consequences of critical healthcare skills shortage in the Southern Africa Development Community

ABSTRACT Background The Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) has a shortage of critical healthcare skills. Aims To identify the causes and consequences of shortages and make policy recommendations. Methods A literature search was conducted using eight electronic databases and the World Health Organization and SADC Websites. Results From the studies reviewed the causes included mismatch between demand and supply, and loss of personnel to developed countries. Underlying factors included poorly functioning education systems and poor working conditions. Of the 16 SADC countries only five met the minimum requirements for nurses and midwives, and four for physicians. These factors exacerbate the population’s poor health, and clinical outcomes. Conclusion Internal reforms to the health and education sectors are necessary to progress towards geographic and demographic equity in health provision. The SADC should set regional targets and monitor the size and composition of the workforce to enable evaluation of progress towards targets.

Improvement of the internal reforming of metal-supported SOFC at low temperatures

Automotive Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) require improvements in mechanical robustness, power generation at low temperatures, and system compactness. To address these issues, we attempt to improve the internal reformation of metal-supported SOFCs (MS-SOFCs) via catalyst infiltration. After introducing nickel/gadolinium-doped ceria (Ni/GDC) nanoparticles, power densities of 1.16 Wcm−2 with hydrogen (3%H2O) and 0.85 Wcm−2 with methane (Steam-to-Carbon ratio, S/C = 1.0) are obtained at 600 °C, 0.7 V. This is the highest performance achieved in previous studies on MS-SOFCs. Internal reforming with various hydrocarbon is also demonstrated. In particular 0.64 Wcm−2 at 600 °C, 0.7 V is obtained when the fuel is iso-octane. We develop a numerical model to separately analyze reforming and electrochemical reaction. Catalyst infiltration dramatically increases the number of active sites for steam reforming. In addition, ruthenium/gadolinium-doped ceria (Ru/GDC) should be suitable as a catalyst metal at low temperatures because of the lower activation energy of steam reforming.

What Lies Beneath Pakistan’s Disastrous Floods

The 2022 floods that affected 33 million people in Pakistan resulted from a confluence of factors. The nation is highly vulnerable to climate change, which requires international action. But internal governance reforms are needed to improve the state’s ability to help citizens recover from the floods and better prepare for future natural disasters. Pakistan has mismanaged its natural resources and is mired in economic and political crises. In rural areas, colonial-era patterns persist in unequal control over land and water. Though some lessons were learned from major 2010 floods, the latest disaster response revealed a need for improving coordination across different levels of government and engaging with civil society.

A stable chromite anode for SOFC with Ce/Ni exsolution for simultaneous electricity generation and CH4 reforming

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) operating at a high temperature can be used to generate electricity and produce syngas from hydrocarbon fuels. In this work, the in-situ decoration of CeO2 and Ni nanoparticles on the surface of chromite anode has been explored; i.e., the exsolution of CeO2 from La0.75Ce0.05Ca0.2Cr0.9Ni0.1O3 (Ce-LCN) can be achieved in the oxygenation in air to boost the exsolution of Ni0 under the fuel condition. The SOFC with a Ce-LCN anode showed higher performance and better stability under propane and H2 fuel than the one La0.8Ca0.2Cr0.9Ni0.1O3 (LCN) anode because of the formation of CeO2 and Ni0 nanoparticles. Setting in the distribution of H2 in the existing natural gas pipeline, hydrogen-injection in CH4 (20% H2 in volume in CH4) was found for the first time to efficiently improve the coking resistance of the anode because the H2 was able to boost the transfer of oxygen from the anode to the direct internal reforming. The conversion of CH4 was found to be around 85% and the selectivity for CO was close to unity. This study provides a viable solution to the design of complex perovskite SOFC to produce electricity and syngas simultaneously from CH4.

Trade policy uncertainty and new firm entry: Evidence from China

This study offers novel evidence that reduced trade policy uncertainty (TPU) in the destination market promotes domestic entrepreneurial activities in a large developing economy. Exploiting China’s WTO accession as a quasi-natural experiment, we find that Chinese manufacturing industries with greater TPU reduction are associated with relative increases in the new firm entry rate. The TPU effect is more pronounced in industries with lower entry barriers or larger irreversible investments. In addition, TPU reduction fosters new entrants through both the exporting and non-exporting margins and contributes to strengthening regional agglomeration forces. Heterogeneity across regions with varying exporting costs and entry barriers is also identified, illustrating the important synchronization between external openness and internal reform for developing economies. Last, we show that reduction in TPU intensifies industry-level competition, induces better-quality entrants, and that new firm entry plays a non-negligible role in linking TPU reduction to improved economic performance.

Functional ceramic support as an independent catalyst layer for direct liquid fuel solid oxide fuel cells

A porous ceramic support is designed as a multi-functional independent catalyst layer for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) running on liquid hydrocarbon fuel. The layer consists of a highly porous Ce_0.9Ca_0.1O_{2−<i>δ</i>} ceramic backbone and active NiMo catalysts, which could be integrated into the conventional Ni metal containing the anode for internal reforming of the hydrocarbon fuel. Compared to conventional catalyst layers sintered on the anodes, this independent catalyst layer could be simply assembled on top of the anode without additional sintering, thereby avoiding the mismatch of the thermal expansion coefficient between the catalyst layer and the anode and improving stability of a single cell. Moreover, a current collector layer could be inserted between the catalyst and the anode to enhance current collection efficiency and electrochemical performance of the single cell. At 750 ℃, the independent catalyst layer displays high activity towards the catalytic decomposition of methanol, and the single cell could achieve the maximum power density of 400–500 mW·cm⁻² in dry methanol. Furthermore, by employing the independent catalyst layer, the single cell offers additional <i>in-situ</i> catalyst regeneration capability under the methanol operation mode. Feeding 10 mL·min⁻¹ air into an anode channel for 5 min is found to be effective to burn out carbon species in the catalyst layer, which reduces the degradation rate of the cell voltage by orders of magnitude from 2.6 to 0.024 mV·h⁻¹ during the operation of 360 h in dry methanol. The results demonstrate the significance of the independent catalyst layer design for direct internal reforming methanol fuel cells.

Lab‐Scale Demonstration of By‐Product Utilization in an Integrated Power‐to‐Liquid Process Applying Co‐Electrolysis

High‐temperature electrolysis has been shown to be a promising technology for the so‐called Power‐to‐Liquid processes. However, to reach the full potential of high‐temperature electrolysis regarding process efficiency, by‐product recirculation and heat utilization are of vital importance. Herein, the possibility to perform internal reforming of by‐products within the electrolyzer to again obtain syngas can be advantageous. This mode of operation is demonstrated in electrolysis lab tests on cell and stack level, showing the ability to convert methane. However, the recycled gaseous product stream from a Fischer–Tropsch synthesis is much broader in its composition and longer‐chained hydrocarbons may lead to issues such as carbon formation, thermal stress, and catalytic stability. Herein, the Power‐to‐Liquid process, consisting of high‐temperature co‐electrolysis and Fischer–Tropsch synthesis, is implemented in a laboratory‐scale plant to study the possibility of internally reforming by‐products within the electrolyzer. Herein, the importance of by‐product recirculation is highlighted by the results of the investigation, as it allows for a significant increase in carbon efficiency and subsequently in energetic efficiency, but especially the potential of high‐temperature electrolysis for integrated process concepts applying internal reforming.

Simultaneous characterizations of segmented electrochemical characteristics and temperature distribution in the hythane-fueled direct internal reforming solid oxide fuel cell

The solid oxide fuel cell with direct internal reforming is promising for cost-effective utilization of hythane produced by blending hydrogen in natural gas. Deep understanding of the inhomogeneous distributions of physiochemical processes is essential to assist in optimization of hythane-fueled fuel cell. In this work, the effects of H2 blending ratio and steam-to-carbon ratio on local electrochemical performance and temperature of a segmented cell are comprehensively examined. Local electrochemical processes are clarified by various electrochemical impedance spectroscopy investigation approaches including analysis of differences in impedance spectra, distribution of relaxation times, and equivalent circuit model fitting. H2 blending reduces the concentration overpotential significantly while also homogenizing the reforming distribution and promoting the anodic electrochemical process in all segments. H2 blending ratio above 20 % greatly reduces the cold spots induced by endothermic reforming but results in hot spots in the gas outlet when the voltage is below 0.7 V because of high electrochemical reaction heat. Regardless of the H2 blending or steam-to-carbon ratio, a nearly thermal neutral state is observed at current density of 300 mA cm−2. These findings demonstrate the potential of boosting performance and simultaneously maintaining homogeneous temperature in the direct internal reforming solid oxide fuel cells.

Nanoengineering modification of Ni-YSZ anode using in-situ solvothermal process in solid oxide fuel cells with internally reformed fuel

The conventional Ni-Y0.16Zr0.84O1.92 anode in solid oxide fuel cells fueled with hydrocarbon fuels is prone to suffer from carbon deposition. In this work, we employed an in-situ solvothermal method to decorate the Ni-Y0.16Zr0.84O1.92 anode with Gd0.1Ce0.9O1.95-δ nanoparticles to improve its resistance to carbon deposition and thus improve the electrochemical performance of the cell. This method generates small Gd0.1Ce0.9O1.95-δ particles and at the same time does not block the gas diffusion channels. The Gd0.1Ce0.9O1.95-δ-decorated anode showed enhanced long-term stability in methane with no significant performance degradation after 700 at 750 °C, whereas an untreated Ni-Y0.16Zr0.84O1.92 anode only worked for less than 8 h under the same conditions. The addition of Gd0.1Ce0.9O1.95-δ nanoparticles was found to enhance internal reforming reactions of methane by the distribution of relaxation times technique. This work demonstrated that in-situ solvothermal modification strategy can provide anodes with excellent carbon deposition resistance.

Nikolaj Pavlovič Ignjatijev i Kritski ustanak (1866-1869)

The Cretan Revolt (1866-1869) is part of a broader Christian liberation movement that emerged in the mid-19th century in the Balkans, representing a crucial phase in the long-standing struggle of the Cretans for liberation from Ottoman rule. At the outbreak of the uprising in Crete, Russia was focused on internal reforms, and its Balkan policy aimed to preserve the status quo. However, within Russian diplomacy, a faction aligned with the Slavophiles supported the national movements in the Balkans and encouraged their liberation plans. One of the diplomats closely associated with the Slavophiles was the Russian ambassador in Constantinople, N. P. Ignatiyev, whose diplomacy was centered on collaborating with Christians in Turkey and advancing their liberation efforts. Consequently, the scope of his diplomatic engagement in all matters related to the position of Christians led to the observation that he did not consistently adhere to the instructions from the government in Petrograd. This practice of the Russian representative became particularly apparent in relation to the events in Crete between 1866 and 1869.

Impact of the AfCFTA Agreement on Customs Revenue: case of Togo

The problem of loss of budgetary revenues with the implementation of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) agreement remains a concern, especially for the least developed countries. The losses resulting from the removal of tariff barriers deserve to be assessed in order to allow public authorities to establish mitigating measures. Drawing from this perspective, this paper aims to quantitatively assess the impact that the AfCFTA agreement has on Togo’s customs revenue. Using the differential method of current and future tariff regimes, the results of the study estimate the total loss in Togolese customs revenue during the first three years of the implementation of the Agreement at 30.9 billion CFA. This loss represents up to 0.25 per cent of the GDP and 22.67 per cent of the customs revenue collected, which could further widen the country’s budget deficit, and consequently compromise the financing of its development needs. Faced with such a situation, the Togolese state should carry out major internal tax reforms and public policy, consisting among others of broadening its national tax base, promoting the facilitation of intracontinental trade, and supporting the private sector through financial mechanisms in order to contribute to their competitiveness in light of the competition from other foreign companies.

Andean community – Eurasian Economic Union: are there any prospects?

The article examines the integration experience of the Andean Community (CAN) in the context of its relationship with the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), basing on the interdisciplinary approach. During the period of its existence, the Andean Community has repeatedly undergone a state of internal crisis and reforming of the institutional model, but managed to succeed in creating a Free Trade Area and strengthen extra-regional ties. Its initiatives and extensive institutional structure largely testify to the strengthening of socio-economic cooperation between countries in the field of supporting business, the academic community and indigenous peoples. CAN is of interest in the context of the development of trans-regional interaction between it and the EAEU. Both structures show mutual interest in the exchange of practices and experience in the sphere of integration development. According to the author, the key task for CAN and the EAEU should be not only the implementation of the signed documents on cooperation, but also the constant maintenance of a dialogue within the framework of formal institutional mechanisms, the identification of mutually beneficial areas of cooperation.

The situation analysis on market-oriented selection and employment of talents in power grid business

Talent is the "first resource" for state-owned enterprises to achieve high-quality development. Only by following the law of market economy can we realize the optimal allocation of talent elements and play the maximum value. The government has repeatedly stressed that it should not only introduce local talents from regions, but also seek all development talents, use good talents without sticking to one pattern, and gather talents from all over the world. The construction of market-oriented selection and employment mechanism is an important measure to implement the reform of state-owned enterprises. It is of great significance to improving the market-oriented operation mechanism of SOEs, stimulating the development vitality and endogenous impetus of SOEs, and promoting the high-quality development of SOEs. From the perspective of internal and external reform and development situation, this paper analyses the new requirements and challenges of the reform of state-owned enterprises and the market-oriented selection and employment of power grid business, and further clarifies the direction and policy requirements of the construction of the market-oriented selection and employment mechanism. The importance and necessity to promote market-oriented selection and employment mechanism are comprehensively and systematically expounded.

Performance study of solid oxide fuel cell with Ni-foam indirect internal reformer: Intrinsic reforming kinetics and temperature uniformity

For solid oxide fuel cells, non-uniform temperature distribution has a large effect on the cell’s efficiency over the long-term operation. A methane steam reformer with 10 %Ni/10 %MgO/Ni foam as a catalyst was designed, and the intrinsic kinetic model of the catalyst is developed based on the Langmuir-Hinshelwood theory. An indirect internal reforming (IIR)-SOFC stack is constructed by combing the reformer and the single SOFC stack to improve the uniform temperature distribution and reduce the cell temperature gradient under various operating conditions. The electrical performance and temperature distribution of the IIR-SOFC stack and direct internal reforming (DIR)-SOFC stack are comparatively studied by experiments and numerical simulations. The results show that the two SOFC stacks have almost identical polarization curves under different temperatures, fuel–air flow rates, or steam/methane (S/C). It indicates that the IIR-SOFC stack just changes the position of methane reforming, and the amount of hydrogen and carbon monoxide produced by methane reforming is almost the same. As compared to the DIR-SOFC stack, the IIR-SOFC stack observably lowers the cell temperature uniform index, and the cell global and local temperature gradient, making the cell temperature distribution more uniform. The maximum temperature difference and the maximum temperature gradient on the IIR-SOFC anode are 35.1 % and 307 % less than on the DIR-SOFC anode under the operating condition of 800 °C, S/C = 2.5 and 0.6 V. Overall, the Ni-foam-based IIR-SOFC stack can homogenize the cell temperature distribution, and reduce the cell carbon deposition and mechanical failure.

Peculiarities of the relationship of the Ukrainian-Canadian «special partnership»

The more than century-long history of Ukrainians in Canada led to the formation of unique Ukrainian-Canadian relations, which were later legally consolidated as a «special partnership» in the Joint Declaration on a Special Partnership between Ukraine and Canada dated March 31, 1994. Both Ukraine and Canada were colonies of two empires. After all, Canada, as a state, arose as a result of the colonization of the territory of North America by two competing European nations: the French and the Anglo-Saxons. In turn, the western part of Ukraine once belonged to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the eastern part to the Russian Empire. The colonial past of both states determines their certain historical kinship, which is one of the specific features of the «special partnership» relationship between our countries. However, the formation and development of Ukrainian-Canadian «special partnership» relations took place under the influence of the super-powerful Ukrainian diaspora in Canada, which, being one of the most powerful and organized, not only plays a prominent role in the political life of its country, but also acts as a decisive factor that determines the specificity of Ukrainian - Canadian relations. The Ukrainian community in Canada is one of the most powerful, organized and active. As a result, a prominent role in the political and cultural life of Canada. The Ukrainian community of Canada managed to positively integrate into the country's non-ethnic society, at the same time preserve its identity and act as a reliable partner of Ukraine in the implementation of internal democratic reforms and improvements in foreign policy positions. Having variable instruments of influence on international politics, it used the most effective strategy for achieving its own goals, the essence of which is to influence the policy formation of the host state. The Ukrainian diaspora played a significant role in shaping the image of independent Ukraine in Canada, in popularizing Ukrainian domestic and foreign policy, which contributed to the formation of friendly and mutually beneficial relations between the two countries and found its logical continuation in the form of the establishment of first diplomatic relations, and later «special partnership» relations between Ukraine and Canada.

Power generation from flat-tube solid oxide fuel cells by direct internal dry reforming of methanol: A route for simultaneous utilization of CO2 and biofuels

Dry reforming of liquid alcohols coupled with solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) is a promising approach for clean and efficient energy conversion. Herein, the feasibility of power generation from flat-tube SOFCs with direct internal dry reforming of methanol has been studied. The effects of CO2/MeOH ratio, temperature, and current density on cell performance and long-term durability were investigated. Higher CO2/MeOH ratios reduced the power density, but suppressed carbon deposition and enhanced long-term durability. A cell was operated stably over 500 h with a constant current density of 200 mA/cm2 under CO2/MeOH = 1 and 2 at 750 °C. In addition to stable power generation, simultaneous syngas production and reduction in CO2 emissions were achieved. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations elucidated the possible pathways for methanol dry reforming and mechanism of carbon removal. Our experimental and simulation results provide insights into the direct utilization of methanol in SOFCs using dry reforming.