INTERMAGNET Research Articles

Main features of the geomagnetic effect of the October 14, 2023 annular solar eclipse in the Americas

The purpose of this paper is to investigate temporal variations in the northward, X, eastward, Y, and downward, Z, components of the geomagnetic field recorded during the October 14, 2023 annular solar eclipse, which main features include its annularity, the eclipse occurrence from local dawn to local dusk, its magnitude variation from 0.30 to 0.86, and the longest ever-observed path across the mainland of the Americas, covering latitudes from ∼65°N to 12°S. The analysis was made possible due to the data on temporal variations in the northward, X, eastward, Y, and downward, Z, components of the geomagnetic field collected at thirteen International Real-time Magnetic Observatory Network magnetometer stations (https://imag-data.bgs.ac.uk/GIN_V1/GINForms2). The solar eclipse acted to cause non-sinusoidal and quasi-sinusoidal perturbations having temporal durations of 180–240 min in all geomagnetic field components on a global scale (∼8000 km). The X-component experienced the largest perturbations attaining 10–20 nT, and the Z-component underwent the smallest disturbances. The quasi-sinusoidal perturbation amplitude did not exceed 5–6 nT, and the period most often showed variations within 15–40 min. The magnetic effect exhibited a tendency to increase with solar eclipse magnitude, while the magnitude of the effect has been shown to be significantly dependent on geographic coordinates, local time, ionospheric state, and the patterns of ionospheric currents as well. During the solar eclipse, the electron density depletion was estimated to be ∼0.10 to ∼0.40–0.60 when the eclipse obscuration Amax varied from 19% to 82%. The movement of the lunar shadow was accompanied by the generation of atmospheric gravity waves with period of ∼10–80 min and by electron density perturbations with amplitudes of the order of 0.01–0.03. The estimates made on the assumption that the magnetic effect is due to the ionospheric current disruptions show good agreement with the observations.

Analysis of geomagnetic observatory data and detection of geomagnetic jerks with the MOSFiT software package

Abstract. MOSFiT (Magnetic Observatories and Stations Filtering Tool) is a Python package to visualize and filter data from magnetic observatories and magnetometer stations. The purpose of MOSFiT is to automatically isolate and analyze the secular variation (SV) information measured by geomagnetic observatory data. External field contributions may be reduced by selecting data according to local time and geomagnetic indices and by subtracting the magnetospheric field predictions of the CHAOS-7 model. MOSFiT calculates the SV by annual differences of monthly means, and geomagnetic jerk occurrence time and amplitude are automatically calculated by fitting two straight-line segments in a user-defined time interval of the SV time series. Here, we present the new Python package, validate it against independent results from previous publications and show its application. In particular, we quantify the RMS misfit between SV derived from processing schemes and the SV predicted by CHAOS-7. Analyzing the International Real-time Magnetic Observatory Network (INTERMAGNET) quasi-definitive data with MOSFiT allows for a timely investigation of SV, such as the detection of recent geomagnetic jerks. It can also be used for data selection for, e.g., external field studies or quality control of geomagnetic observatory data.

Brief Report of Possible Anticipation of Earthquakes from Geomagnetic Studies Water Level and Atmospheric Pressure in the South Atlantic

This paper presents a brief summary of studies carried out in the southwestern Atlantic, based on the analysis of disturbances in the earth’s Geomagnetic Field (GMF), Water Level (WL) and sea-level Atmospheric Pressure (AP) associated with seismic events. GMF records from observatories of the International Real-time Magnetic Observatory Network (INTERMAGNET), WL records from tide stations of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC), and hourly AP records from databases of the Global Modeling and Assimilation Office (GMAO) of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) have been analyzed in the area under study. A comparative table is presented between the frequencies of the GMF wavelet transform analysis, filtered WL records and variation in the AP grids at sea level before and after the earthquakes. It is possible to observe different degrees of approximation in each of the variables regarding the occurrence of earthquakes. For example, in the case of the CMF, some high-intensity seismic events show anomalous frequencies some hours before the earthquake. On the other hand, the WL filtered by astronomical tide, account for the seismic event along the seacoast with a correspondence between wave amplitude and distance to the nearest ports. AP grids account for a dipole type configuration in the distribution of the pressure difference around the earthquake. On the other hand, the time series of atmospheric pressure at ocean level show a local minimum in a range of hours around the occurrence of the event.

Brief Introduce of Planetary K-index: An Indicator of Geomagnetic Storms

The planetary K-index (Kp index) was a geomagnetic index in the H-component field. This index was calculated from data collected by a network of 13 ground-based magnetometer stations at mid-latitude locations from the International Real-time Magnetic Observatory Network (INTERMAGNET). The magnitudes of Kp index could indicate geomagnetic activity using the integer K-scale from 0 to 9 without dimension because the K-scale was estimated using the quasi-logarithms algorithm. The Kp index indicated geomagnetic storms under the condition of K-scale＞4. The three-hourly Kp index has been commonly used. The three-hourly Kp index was relatively stable for low‐variability geomagnetic activity. The hourly Kp index represented the level of auroral absorption with a more accurate characterization. For future research, the Kp index with a high sampling rate (e.g., ＜1 hour) could be considered, so that a very accurate characterization was characterized the more detailed geomagnetic activity of global region.

Real-time Magnetic Observatory Network: A Review

The International Real-time Magnetic Observatory Network (INTERMAGNET) was based on the Observatory Instruments in Ottawa, Canada in August 1986. After coordination between the United States and British Geological Surveys, this network could use to record Earth’s magnetic field e.g., Disturbance storm time (Dst) index that monitored a large geomagnetic storm. The INTERMAGNET has been used in to access the observed communicating. The production of geomagnetic products could be obtained in real-time. Overseeing the operations of INTERMAGNET, the first geomagnetic Information Node (GIN) was established in 1991, the first CD-ROM/DVD was published in 1991.

Fusion of wildlife tracking and satellite geomagnetic data for the study of animal migration

BackgroundMigratory animals use information from the Earth’s magnetic field on their journeys. Geomagnetic navigation has been observed across many taxa, but how animals use geomagnetic information to find their way is still relatively unknown. Most migration studies use a static representation of geomagnetic field and do not consider its temporal variation. However, short-term temporal perturbations may affect how animals respond - to understand this phenomenon, we need to obtain fine resolution accurate geomagnetic measurements at the location and time of the animal. Satellite geomagnetic measurements provide a potential to create such accurate measurements, yet have not been used yet for exploration of animal migration.MethodsWe develop a new tool for data fusion of satellite geomagnetic data (from the European Space Agency’s Swarm constellation) with animal tracking data using a spatio-temporal interpolation approach. We assess accuracy of the fusion through a comparison with calibrated terrestrial measurements from the International Real-time Magnetic Observatory Network (INTERMAGNET). We fit a generalized linear model (GLM) to assess how the absolute error of annotated geomagnetic intensity varies with interpolation parameters and with the local geomagnetic disturbance.ResultsWe find that the average absolute error of intensity is − 21.6 nT (95% CI [− 22.26555, − 20.96664]), which is at the lower range of the intensity that animals can sense. The main predictor of error is the level of geomagnetic disturbance, given by the Kp index (indicating the presence of a geomagnetic storm). Since storm level disturbances are rare, this means that our tool is suitable for studies of animal geomagnetic navigation. Caution should be taken with data obtained during geomagnetically disturbed days due to rapid and localised changes of the field which may not be adequately captured.ConclusionsBy using our new tool, ecologists will be able to, for the first time, access accurate real-time satellite geomagnetic data at the location and time of each tracked animal, without having to start new tracking studies with specialised magnetic sensors. This opens a new and exciting possibility for large multi-species studies that will search for general migratory responses to geomagnetic cues. The tool therefore has a potential to uncover new knowledge about geomagnetic navigation and help resolve long-standing debates.

Solar quiet variation of the horizontal and vertical components of geomagnetic field using wavelet analysis

The solar quiet (Sq) variations of horizontal and vertical (SqH and SqZ) components of the geomagnetic field obtained from both the Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere of the International Real-Time Magnetic Observatory Network (INTERMAGNET) during solar maximum year 2001 were investigated. The results show enlargement of the SqH component of the geomagnetic field during the daytime, attributed to equatorial electrojet (EEJ) current closer to the geomagnetic equator at the electrojet stations (BNG and MBO), which are produced from large eastward flow of the current. It was observed that SqZ is positive at the southward and negative at the northward hemispheres. SqZ is amplified at HER and HBK around the daytime. Wavelet power spectrum based approach was employed to analyse the SqH, SqZ, and rate of induction (SqZ/SqH) time series in a sequence of time scaling from January to December. The higher energy of SqH and SqZ of the wavelet coefficients is noticeable at high frequency. The monthly variation rate of induction (SqZ/SqH) analyses during the Sq variations are associated with the influence of equatorwards penetration of electric fields from the field-aligned current, Earth conductivity, effect of the ocean, and ionospheric conductivity.

Approach to Assessment of the Relative Informational Efficiency of Intermagnet Magnetic Observatories

The IAGA-2002 1-min geomagnetic time series published by the International Real-time Magnetic Observatory Network (INTERMAGNET) are considered. Their completeness and anomalies are analyzed. The concept of the relative informational efficiency index is introduced. Theory elements are developed for its qualitative and quantitative assessment. Time series of geomagnetic data published by INTERMAGNET for 2014–2017 are used to find the range for the determination of this index and its basic statistical characteristics. An approach to the classification of INTERMAGNET magnetic observatories by the relative informational efficiency index is proposed. The nature of the geospatial distribution of the appropriate classes of magnetic observatories is investigated.

Comprehensive Analysis of the Geoeffective Solar Event of 21 June 2015: Effects on the Magnetosphere, Plasmasphere, and Ionosphere Systems

A full-halo coronal mass ejection (CME) left the Sun on 21 June 2015 from active region (AR) NOAA 12371. It encountered Earth on 22 June 2015 and generated a strong geomagnetic storm whose minimum Dst value was −204 nT. The CME was associated with an M2-class flare observed at 01:42 UT, located near disk center (N12 E16). Using satellite data from solar, heliospheric, and magnetospheric missions and ground-based instruments, we performed a comprehensive Sun-to-Earth analysis. In particular, we analyzed the active region evolution using ground-based and satellite instruments (Big Bear Solar Observatory (BBSO), Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS), Hinode, Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) onboard the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO), Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager (RHESSI), covering H $\upalpha$ , EUV, UV, and X-ray data); the AR magnetograms, using data from SDO/Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI); the high-energy particle data, using the Payload for Antimatter Matter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics (PAMELA) instrument; and the Rome neutron monitor measurements to assess the effects of the interplanetary perturbation on cosmic-ray intensity. We also evaluated the 1 – 8 A soft X-ray data and the ${\sim}\, 1$ MHz type III radio burst time-integrated intensity (or fluence) of the flare in order to predict the associated solar energetic particle (SEP) event using the model developed by Laurenza et al. (Space Weather 7(4), 2009). In addition, using ground-based observations from lower to higher latitudes (International Real-time Magnetic Observatory Network (INTERMAGNET) and European Quasi-Meridional Magnetometer Array (EMMA)), we reconstructed the ionospheric current system associated with the geomagnetic sudden impulse (SI). Furthermore, Super Dual Auroral Radar Network (SuperDARN) measurements were used to image the global ionospheric polar convection during the SI and during the principal phases of the geomagnetic storm. In addition, to investigate the influence of the disturbed electric field on the low-latitude ionosphere induced by geomagnetic storms, we focused on the morphology of the crests of the equatorial ionospheric anomaly by the simultaneous use of the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receivers, ionosondes, and Langmuir probes onboard the Swarm constellation satellites. Moreover, we investigated the dynamics of the plasmasphere during the different phases of the geomagnetic storm by examining the time evolution of the radial profiles of the equatorial plasma mass density derived from field line resonances detected at the EMMA network ( $1.5 < \mathrm{L} < 6.5$ ). Finally, we present the general features of the geomagnetic response to the CME by applying innovative data analysis tools that allow us to investigate the time variation of ground-based observations of the Earth’s magnetic field during the associated geomagnetic storm.

Longitudinal Variation of EEJ Current during Different Phases of Solar Cycle

The equatorial electrojet (EEJ) is an eastward current flow around the dip equator in E-region of the ionosphere within the range of 90 to 120 km altitude. The longitudinal variation of EEJ was studied using the ground-based measurement from six different longitudinal sectors. The ground magnetometer data were provided by magnetometer networks such as those from Magnetic Data Acquisition System (MAGDAS) /Circum-pan Pacific Magnetometer Network (CPMN), Indian Institute of Geomagnetism (IIG) and International Real-time Magnetic Observatory Network (INTERMAGNET). The EUEL index used in this study was calculated from geomagnetic northward H component. The H-component was normalized to the dip equator using the CM4 model. This study present results of the longitudinal variation of EEJ during the three phases of solar cycle 24: solar minimum (2008), inclination phase (2011) and solar maximum (2014). Results show that EEJ current is higher in the American sector and lowest between African and Indian sector in 2008 and 2011. On the other hand, during the year of solar maximum, this current component is comparable in American and Southeast Asian sector.

Automated Hardware and Software System for Monitoring the Earth’s Magnetic Environment

The continuous growth of geophysical observations requires adequate methods for their processing and analysis. This becomes one of the most important and widely discussed issues in the data science community. The system analysis methods and data mining techniques are able to sustain the solution of this problem. This paper presents an innovative holistic hardware/software system (HSS) developed for efficient management and intellectual analysis of geomagnetic data, registered by Russian geomagnetic observatories and international satellites. Geomagnetic observatories that comprise the International Real-time Magnetic Observatory Network (INTERMAGNET) produce preliminary (raw) and definitive (corrected) geomagnetic data of the highest quality. The designed system automates and accelerates routine production of definitive data from the preliminary magnetograms, obtained by Russian observatories, due to implemented algorithms that involve artificial intelligence elements. The HSS is the first system that provides sophisticated automatic detection and multi-criteria classification of extreme geomagnetic conditions, which may be hazardous for technological infrastructure and economic activity in Russia. It enables the online access to digital geomagnetic data, its processing results and modelling calculations along with their visualization on conventional and spherical screens. The concept of the presented system agrees with the accepted ‘four Vs’ paradigm of Big Data. The HSS can increase significantly the ‘velocity’ and ‘veracity’ features of the INTERMAGNET system. It also provides fusion of large sets of ground-based and satellite geomagnetic data, thus facilitating the ‘volume’ and ‘variety’ of handled data.

Quiet Time Geomagnetic Field Variations in the Equatorial East African Region During the Inclining Phase of Solar Cycle 24

In the present paper, geomagnetic field data obtained from magnetometer measurements at two ground based stations have been used to study solar activity dependence of the solar quiet variations. The study has focused on the horizontal component of the geomagnetic field. The data used in the current study was obtained for all quiet periods from the solar minimum year (2009) through the solar maximum year (2014) to the start of the declining phase (year 2015) of Solar Cycle 24. The present study uses the magnetic data from International Real-time Magnetic Observatory Network (INTERMAGNET) station at Addis Ababa (geomagnetic latitude 0.18°N, geomagnetic longitude110.47°E) and MAGnetic Data Acquisition System (MAGDAS) station at Nairobi (geomagnetic latitude 10.65°S, geomagnetic longitude 108.18°E). The amplitude of mean Sq(H) has shown a dependence on local time of the day and solar activity, with peak values occurring between 1100 LT and 1200 LT and increasing with increase in solar activity; attaining highest values during the solar maximum year. Further, the amplitude of mean Sq(H) at Nairobi is higher than the corresponding values at Addis Ababa in the morning hours around 0700-0800 LT. The local time dependence is attributed to the variation in solar heating and ionization rates while the solar activity dependence is attributed to the increase in electron density with increase in solar activity. The larger morning hours’ amplitudes at Nairobi than Addis Ababa are possibly due to counter electrojet effects close to the geomagnetic equator.

Daily geomagnetic field prediction of INTERMAGNET observatories data using the multilayer perceptron neural network

In this paper, a tentative prediction of daily geomagnetic field and storms is implanted by analyzing the International Real-Time Magnetic Observatory Network data using the artificial neural network (ANN). Solar geomagnetic storms have a big effect on plasma ionospheric disturbance, and our study intend to introduce this effect when predicting ionospheric physical response. The implanted method is based on the prediction of future geomagnetic field components using a multilayer perceptron neural network model. The input is the time, and the output is the X, Y, and Z magnetic field components. Application to geomagnetic data of May 2002 shows that the implanted ANN model can greatly help the geomagnetic storms prediction.

An International Network of Magnetic Observatories

Since its formation in the late 1980s, the International Real‐Time Magnetic Observatory Network (INTERMAGNET), a voluntary consortium of geophysical institutes from around the world, has promoted the operation of magnetic observatories according to modern standards [e.g., Rasson, 2007]. INTERMAGNET institutes have cooperatively developed infrastructure for data exchange and management as well as methods for data processing and checking. INTERMAGNET institutes have also helped to expand global geomagnetic monitoring capacity, most notably by assisting magnetic observatory institutes in economically developing countries by working directly with local geophysicists.

A comparative study of TEC response for the African equatorial and mid-latitudes during storm conditions

The solar wind effects on the Earth's environment are studied for their basic scientific values and crucial practical impacts on technological systems. This paper reports results of Total Electron Content (TEC) changes during two successive ionospheric storms of 7–12 November 2004 using GPS data derived from dual frequency receivers located at African equatorial and midlatitudes. In the geographic coordinate system, equatorial TEC variability is considered over Libreville (0.36°N, 9.67°E), Gabon and Mbarara (0.60°S, 30.74°E), Uganda. TEC over midlatitude stations Sutherland (32.38°S, 20.81°E) and Springbok (29.67°S, 17.88°E), South Africa are analysed. The analysis of the storm time ionospheric variability over South Africa was undertaken by comparing the critical frequency of the F2 layer (foF2) and the peak height of the F2 layer (hmF2) values obtained from Grahamstown (33.30°S, 26.53°E) and Madimbo (22.4°S, 30.9°E) ionosonde measurements. During the analysed storm period it is observed that GPS TEC for midlatitudes was depleted significantly with a corresponding depletion in foF2, due to the reduction in GUVI O/N2 ratio as observed from its global maps. Over the equatorial latitudes, positive storm effects are more dominant especially during the storm main phase. Negative storm effects are observed over both mid and equatorial latitudes during the recovery phase. A shift in equatorial TEC enhancement (from one GPS station to another) is observed during magnetic storms and has been partially attributed to passage of Travelling Ionospheric Disturbances (TIDs). Magnetometer data over the International Real-time Magnetic Observatory Network (intermagnet) station, Addis Ababa, AAE (9.03°N, 38.77°E) has been used to help with the explanation of possible causes of equatorial ionospheric TEC dynamics during the analysed magnetic storm period.

Geomagnetic Sudden Commencement Automatic Detection via MODWT

It is of great importance to develop an algorithm that autodetects sudden commencement (SC) because it could be an indicator of the onset of the geomagnetic storm. A geomagnetic storm is considered as one of the global processes in the ionosphere-thermosphere-magnetosphere system. Automatic detection of SCs is based on multiresolution analysis of a maximal overlap discrete wavelet transform using a Haar wavelet filter. The proposed algorithm is tested on 1-min-resolution data sets collected from magnetic observatories belonging to the International Real-Time Magnetic Observatory Network. Maximum standard deviation of algorithm detection times is observed to be 1 min of the corresponding arrival times published by the National Geophysical Data Center.

Automatic detection of geomagnetic sudden commencement via time–frequency clusters

One of global processes in ionosphere–thermosphere–magnetosphere system is the geomagnetic storms. It is of great importance to develop an algorithm that auto-detects sudden commencement because it could be an indicator of onset of the geomagnetic storm. Automatic detection of geomagnetic sudden commencement is based on time–frequency clusters generated by spectrogram. Proposed algorithm is tested on data set collected from stations belong to the international real-time magnetic observatory network (INTERMAGNET). Maximum standard deviation of algorithm detection times is observed to be one minute of the corresponding arrival times published by National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC).

Recognition of disturbances with specified morphology in time series. Part 1: Spikes on magnetograms of the worldwide INTERMAGNET network

The International Real-time Magnetic Observatory Network (INTERMAGNET) is the world’s biggest international network of ground-based observatories, providing geomagnetic data almost in real time (within 72 hours of collection) [Kerridge, 2001]. The observation data are rapidly transferred by the observatories participating in the program to regional Geomagnetic Information Nodes (GINs), which carry out a global exchange of data and process the results. The observations of the main (core) magnetic field of the Earth and its study are one of the key problems of geophysics. The INTERMAGNET system is the basis of monitoring the state of the Earth’s magnetic field; therefore, the information provided by the system is required to be very reliable. Despite the rigid high-quality standard of the recording devices, they are subject to external effects that affect the quality of the records. Therefore, an objective and formalized recognition with the subsequent remedy of the anomalies (artifacts) that occur on the records is an important task. Expanding on the ideas of Agayan [Agayan et al., 2005] and Gvishiani [Gvishiani et al., 2008a; 2008b], this paper suggests a new algorithm of automatic recognition of anomalies with specified morphology, capable of identifying both physically- and anthropogenically-derived spikes on the magnetograms. The algorithm is constructed using fuzzy logic and, as such, is highly adaptive and universal. The developed algorithmic system formalizes the work of the expert-interpreter in terms of artificial intelligence. This ensures identical processing of large data arrays, almost unattainable manually. Besides the algorithm, the paper also reports on the application of the developed algorithmic system for identifying spikes at the INTERMAGNET observatories. The main achievement of the work is the creation of an algorithm permitting the almost unmanned extraction of spike-free (definitive) magnetograms from preliminary records. This automated system is developed for the first time with the application of fuzzy logic system for geomagnetic measurements. It is important to note that the recognition of time disturbances is formalized and identical. The algorithm presented here appreciably increases the reliability of spike-free INTERMAGNET magnetograms, thus increasing the objectivity of our knowledge of the Earth’s magnetic field. At the same time, the created system can accomplish identical, formalized, and retrospective analysis of large archives of digital and digitized magnetograms, accumulated in the system of Worldwide Data Centers. The relevant project has already been initiated as a collaborative initiative of the Worldwide Data Center at Geophysical Center (Russian Academy of Sciences) and the NOAA National Geophysical Data Center (Unite States). Thus, by improving and adding objectivity to both new and historical initial data, the developed algorithmic system may contribute appreciably to improving our understanding of the Earth’s magnetic field.

Reexamination of the Sq‐EEJ relationship based on extended magnetometer networks in the east Asian region

We reexamined the daily Sq‐equatorial electrojet (EEJ) relationship based on these extended magnetometer networks in the east Asian region: (1) the Circum‐pan Pacific Magnetometer Network (CPMN), (2) the International Real‐time Magnetic Observatory Network (INTERMAGNET), and (3) the World Data Center for Geomagnetism, Kyoto (WDC). Daily variations of the geomagnetic field for geomagnetically quiet days (Kp ≤ 2+) from 1996 to 2005 were analyzed. Noontime eastward Sq current intensities were estimated by latitudinally integrating the north‐south component of the Sq field. The corresponding EEJ intensities were estimated from the daily geomagnetic field variations observed at Davao station (dip latitude of −0.84°deg). We discovered that these intensities of daily Sq and EEJ are well correlated on a long‐term basis (r = 0.80). The dependences on the solar activity (as indicated by F10.7) and season (the day number) of Sq and EEJ variations were examined. It was demonstrated that both daily Sq and EEJ intensities are correlated to F10.7 with similar sensitivities. F10.7 is known to show similar variations with solar EUV radiation which causes ionization and heating of the ionosphere. For seasonal dependence, both daily Sq and EEJ intensities show predominant semiannual variations with similar spring‐fall asymmetry. The effect of seasonal changes of the EUV flux into the low‐latitude ionosphere is considered. Our results indicate that the daily values of Sq and EEJ react, in the same manner, to temporal changes of solar ionization and heating of the ionosphere.

Asfaw Receives 2008 New International Award

Laike Mariam Asfaw became the director of the Addis Ababa Geophysical Observatory (AAO) at Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia, in 1978. His quiet calm and dedication have ensured a continuous, high‐quality data stream throughout the often politically turbulent period since. He is also deeply involved in the geophysical education of his country's science students, understanding, awareness‐raising, and advising on its seismic and related hazards, and the promotion of its science on the international stage.The AAO was founded in the International Geophysical Year (IGY) as a geomagnetic observatory, still one of the few in Africa. Originally using paper records, hourly mean data have been produced since the observatory's inception; minute mean values have been available since 2000. It is now an International Real‐Time Magnetic Observatory Network (INTERMAGNET) observatory, indicating that it adheres to the highest standards of operation and, through satellite communication, provides data in near real time. Seismometer installation took place in 1959 and was upgraded with digital equipment in 1997. The AAO now also manages the Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS) broadband and other short‐period digital seismic stations in Ethiopia, and is an auxiliary Comprehensive Nuclear‐Test‐Ban Treaty Organization station. A continuously running GPS receiver has recently augmented the instrument base, and AAO is an International Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Service station. The observatory's development and expansion and commitment of overseas funds would not have happened without Laike's leadership. He also ensures that AAO staff and students are actively involved in research based on the observatory's data.