International Races Research Articles

Sleep deprivation and recovery: Endurance racing as a novel model.

The aim of this study was to investigate sleep-wake behavior and gain insights into perceived impairment (sleep, fatigue, and cognitive function) of athletes competing in two international multi-day adventure races. Twenty-four athletes took part across two independent adventure races: Queensland, Australia and Alaska, USA. Individual sleep periods were determined via actigraphy, and racers self-reported their perceived sleep disturbances, sleep impairment, fatigue and cognitive function. Each of these indices was calculated for pre-, during- and post-race periods. Sleep was severely restricted during the race period compared to pre-race (Queensland, 7:46 [0:29] vs. 2:50 [1:01]; Alaska, 7:39 [0:58] vs. 2:45 [2:05]; mean [SD], hh:mm). As a result, there was a large cumulative sleep debt at race completion, which was not 'reversed' in the post-race period (up to 1week). The deterioration in all four self-reported scales of perceived impairment during the race period was largely restored in the post-race period. This is the first study to document objective sleep-wake behaviors and subjective impairment of adventure racers, in the context of two geographically diverse, multi-day, international adventure races. Measures of sleep deprivation indicate that sleep debt was extreme and did not recover to pre-race levels within 1week following each race. Despite this objective debt continuing, perceived impairment returned to pre-race levels quickly post-race. Therefore, further examination of actual and perceived sleep recovery is warranted. Adventure racing presents a unique scenario to examine sleep, performance and recovery.

Swim start and performance in 50 m freestyle in different age categories of competitive swimmers

Background and Study Aim. In international races, the winners are decided by hundredths of a second, which is why the swim start plays an important role, especially in the sprint disciplines. The aim of the study is to reveal the differences in kinematic parameters of start and performance in the sprint 50 m freestyle discipline based on gender in different age categories of competitive swimmers at international competitions organized in Slovakia. Material and Methods. The sample consisted of 180 females and 189 males who were divided into age categories (K1, K2, K3). SwimPro cameras and Dartgish software were used to monitor kinematic parameters. The parameters monitored were - block time (BT), time (FT) and distance (FD) of flight, time (UWT) and distance (UWD) underwater, time to 15 m (T15), 25 m (T25) and 50 m (T50). Data were tested by Shapiro-Wilk, Kurskal-Wallis ANOVA and Mann-Whitney U test in Statistica 13.5. Results. In the phase above water level, there were greater differences (p<0.01) in females than in males. Inter-sex differences (p<0.01) were evident in FT in K3, K2 and in FD across all categories. In the underwater phase, differences (p<0.01) were evident in both sexes. Inter-sex differences were more evident in UWT (p<0.01) than UWD (p<0.05). There were inter-sex differences (p<0.01) in ST and SD between all categories except K3. At T15, T25 and T50, differences (p<0.01) were most pronounced between K3 and K2, K1 in females and between all categories in males. Inter-sex differences (p<0.01) were also evident across all categories. Conclusions. The study highlighted differences in 50m freestyle start and performance between age groups and gender, so coaches are advised to design training sessions for swimmers separately.

Power Profile during Cycling in World Triathlon Series and Olympic Games.

This study aimed to analyze the power profile (PP) during the cycling segment of international-level triathletes in the World Triathlon Series (WTS) and Olympics and to evaluate the influence of circuit type, race distance (Sprint or Olympic distance) and race dynamics on the development of the cycling leg and the final race position. Four male triathletes participated in the study. Twenty races were analyzed using geolocation technology and power-meter data to analyze PP, race dynamics, and course characteristics. Before the races, incremental tests of volitional exhaustion with gas analysis were performed to determine power intensity zones. Nonparametric Mann-Whitney U tests and correlation analyses were conducted to identify differences and relationships between various variables. A correlation between the time spent above maximal aerobic power (MAP) and dangerous curves per kilometer (r = 0.46; p < 0.05) and bike split result (BSR) (r = -0.50; p < 0.05) was observed. Also, moderate correlation was found between BSR and the final race position (r = 0.46; p < 0.01). No differences were found between sprint and Olympic distance races in any variable. Power output variability, influenced by technical circuit segments, remains the main characteristic in international short-distance races. The results of the present study suggest that the triathletes who are better adapted to intermittent high intensity efforts perform better cycling legs at international high-level races.

Suspension as Politics: A Stadium and its Ruins in Northwest Kenya

ABSTRACT From mega-projects to small-scale repairs, many construction projects in Kenya are characterised by delays and false starts. One such case is the renovation of the Kamariny stadium, where since the 1960s world-class long-distance runners have prepared for international races. Part of the government’s Vision 2030 development agenda, the renovation promised to turn old athletics tracks into an imposing modern stadium. However, the construction was started and then suspended. Suspension as an ethnographic observation and an analytical framework provides a nuanced account of infrastructural development, one that complicates state-sanctioned narratives of vision and emergence. Conceptualised as a process and a deliberate political action – rather than an ontic condition – suspension is a resource for political performance and economic speculation, a tool for the state to assert itself as a provider of development, but also a method of civic dissent.

Profiles of stroke regulations discriminate between finishing positions during international open water races

ABSTRACT This study aims to identify stroke regulation profiles and tipping-points in stroke regulation timing during international open water races according to performance level. Twelve elite or world-class swimmers were analysed during 18 international races. Stroke rate and jerk cost were computed cycle-to-cycle using an Inertial Measurement Unit and regulations profiles fitted using polynomials. We performed two-ways mixed-ANOVA to compare stroke kinematics among race segments and performance groups (G1 -fastest- to G3 -slowest-). Swimmers displayed specific regulation profiles (i.e., J-shape with end-spurt, J-shape without end-spurt and reverse L-shape for stroke rate and U-shape, reverse J-shape and reverse L-shape for jerk cost, for respectively G1, G2 and G3) with significant effect of race segment on stroke kinematics for G1 and G2. We highlighted tipping-points in stroke regulations profiles (TP1 and TP2) at respectively 30% and 75% of the race with greater magnitude in G1 than G2. TP1 reflects the end of a stroke economy period (0–30%) and TP2 the end of a progressive increase in stroke kinematics (30–75%) towards end-spurt (75–100%). Open water races follow a high-grading dynamics requiring biomechanical regulations along the race. Targeting stroke rate reserve and management of stroke smoothness should be considered during training of open water swimmers.

ON SOLUTIONS TO THE ARMS RACE MODEL USING SOME TECHNIQUES OF FRACTIONAL CALCULUS

In this paper, we investigate the fractional-order arms race model. The model has emerged as an important tool for the investigation of international conflict and arms races. The variational iteration method, the homotopy perturbation method, and the adomian decomposition method are used to solve the mathematical model with Caputo’s fractional derivative. Several numerical computations have been provided to establish the validity and accuracy of the acquired results. It is shown that the fractional-order model can be solved easily using semi-analytical methods. The results obtained by all methods are compared.

‘A place for training, not for competition’: negotiations of competition and agency among long‐distance runners in Kenya

AbstractKenyan long‐distance runners have for decades famously dominated international athletic competitions. Most of the aspiring runners live and train in the highlands of northwest Kenya, in Elgeyo Marakwet County, where they have access to competitive peer groups of budding athletes and an elaborate infrastructure of camps, coaches, and managers. The most promising and successful ones travel abroad to take part in international races, only to quickly return and continue training in the ‘county of champions’. Meanwhile, Kenya is undergoing a rapid transformation, envisioned by the government's development plan, which promises to transform it into a ‘globally competitive and prosperous country’. On the surface, competition is a self‐explanatory notion that drives the transnational sports industry and the state's development plan. However, ethnography of the county's capital, Iten, and its community of athletes reveals tensions: Kenyans take up, negotiate, appropriate, and challenge meanings of competition offered by the state and the sports industry on ecological, gendered, and moral grounds. Ethnography of ideologies of competition in Iten, conceptualized as moral, aesthetic, and gendered projects, complicates accounts of competition as a tool for global neoliberal governance. It also provides an alternative to analyses of African subjects’ agency in global circulation of capital, people, and ideas, namely analyses subsumed under signs of marginality, dependence, and subjection.

Elite vs. Experienced Male and Female Trail Runners: Comparing Running Economy, Biomechanics, Strength, and Power.

Besson, T, Pastor, FS, Varesco, G, Berthet, M, Kennouche, D, Dandrieux, P-E, Rossi, J, and Millet, GY. Elite vs. experienced male and female trail runners: comparing running economy, biomechanics, strength, and power. J Strength Cond Res 37(7): 1470-1478, 2023-The increased participation in trail running (TR) races and the emergence of official international races have increased the performance level of the world best trail runners. The aim of this study was to compare cost of running (Cr) and biomechanical and neuromuscular characteristics of elite trail runners with their lower level counterparts. Twenty elite (10 females; ELITE) and 21 experienced (10 females; EXP) trail runners participated in the study. Cr and running biomechanics were measured at 10 and 14 km·h-1 on flat and at 10 km·h-1 with 10% uphill incline. Subjects also performed maximal isometric voluntary contractions of knee and hip extensors and knee flexors and maximal sprints on a cycle ergometer to assess the power-torque-velocity profile (PTVP). Athletes also reported their training volume during the previous year. Despite no differences in biomechanics, ELITE had a lower Cr than EXP (p < 0.05). Despite nonsignificant difference in maximal lower-limb power between groups, ELITE displayed a greater relative torque (p < 0.01) and lower maximal velocity (p < 0.01) in the PTVP. Females displayed shorter contact times (p < 0.01) compared with males, but no sex differences were observed in Cr (p > 0.05). No sex differences existed for the PTVP slope, whereas females exhibited lower relative torque (p < 0.01) and velocity capacities (p < 0.01) compared with males. Although not comprehensively assessing all determining factors of TR performance, those data evidenced level and sex specificities of trail runners in some factors of performance. Strength training can be suggested to lower level trail runners to improve Cr and thus TR performance.

The fear of conflict leads people to systematically avoid potentially valuable zero-sum situations

From interpersonal interactions to international arms races, game theorists and social scientists have long studied decision-making in zero-sum situations. Yet, what happens when people can freely choose whether to enter zero-sum situations in the first place? Thirteen studies (including five pre-registered) consistently document evidence for zero-sum aversion—the desire to avoid situations that are (or are believed to be) zero-sum. Across different contexts (economic games, market entry decisions, performance reviews, negotiations, job applications), samples (online participant pool, MBA students, community sample), and designs (within- and between-participant, real and hypothetical decisions), people avoid zero-sum situations that inversely link their and others’ outcomes as well as refrain from putting others in such situations. Because people fear that zero-sum situations will be rife with conflict, they exhibit zero-sum aversion even when doing so is costly. Finally, we find that people require zero-sum situations to provide substantially higher payoffs (e.g., compensation) to overcome their zero-sum aversion. We conclude with a discussion of the implications for interpersonal and intergroup conflict.

Subsidizing Semiconductor Production for a Strategically Autonomous European Union?

Abstract The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the vulnerability of international supply chains and the dependency of the economy of the European Union (EU) on goods from non-EU countries. The scarcity of microchips that has persisted since the COVID lockdowns has laid bare the dependency of the EU on overseas producers of this essential high-tech product. The Russian attack on Ukraine has magnified this issue due to the close economic ties and geographic proximity between the EU and both countries. While ensuring production capability in a crisis is primarily the task of enterprises themselves, a supply disruption can also have tremendous consequences for an entire economy and therefore justify state interventions. The EU has reacted to these circumstances with its concept of Open Strategic Autonomy and the initiative for an EU Chips Act. This concept of autonomy should entail the incorporation of the benefits of an open economy and the aspiration of the EU to co-determine the global framework in a favourable way. But it also calls for more market interventions. However, these require an economic and political justification and close monitoring. The measures should be discussed with international partners in order to prevent retaliation measures or international subsidy races.

Of pulse and ridgway test as predictors of the development of metabolic disorders in horses at equestrian distance running competitions

Equestrian distance running is a relatively new sport for the North-West region, and conducting scientific research to identify fitness markers, as well as the best ways of training, preventing and treating injuries is an urgent problem. In this regard, horses are carefully examined at veterinary inspections before the competition, at each stage, as well as after the end of the competition. Veterinary commissions assess the quality of horse movements, metabolic indicators (degree of dehydration, peristalsis, capillary filling rate, muscle condition in the croup, back and girth), but pay special attention to the pulse. The cardiovascular health of an animal affects the performance and safety of horses and riders. Determination of the pulse is mandatory for equestrian distance races of any level and is regulated by the equestrian federation. The pulse was determined and the Ridgeway test was performed on horses participating in 2021 international equestrian distance races in the Netherlands at a distance of 120 km. Horses with a pulse rate within the reference range at the preliminary veterinary inspection demonstrated successful completion of the race. Therefore, the indicator of heart rate before exercise can be a predictor of the successful completion of distances in equestrian distance races. The Ridgeway test was not informative, as there were no statistically significant differences in the experimental and control groups. The Ridgeway Test is not intended to be performed at pre-competition veterinary inspections, however it is likely that the Ridgeway Test may be indicative of pre-load training, which is a plan for further research.

Aerobic and Anaerobic Power Distribution During Cross-Country Mountain Bike Racing.

To determine aerobic and anaerobic demands of mountain bike cross-country racing. Twelve elite cyclists (7 males; V˙O2max = 73.8 [2.6]mL·min-1·kg-1, maximal aerobic power [MAP] = 370 [26]W, 5.7 [0.4]W·kg-1, and 5 females; V˙O2max = 67.3 [2.9]mL·min-1·kg-1, MAP = 261 [17]W, 5.0 [0.1]W·kg-1) participated over 4 seasons at several (119) international and national races and performed laboratory tests regularly to assess their aerobic and anaerobic performance. Power output, heart rate, and cadence were recorded throughout the races. The mean race time was 79 (12) minutes performed at a mean power output of 3.8 (0.4)W·kg-1; 70% (7%) MAP (3.9 [0.4]W·kg-1 and 3.6 [0.4]W·kg-1 for males and females, respectively) with a cadence of 64 (5) rev·min-1 (including nonpedaling periods). Time spent in intensity zones 1 to 4 (below MAP) were 28% (4%), 18% (8%), 12% (2%), and 13% (3%), respectively; 30% (9%) was spent in zone 5 (above MAP). The number of efforts above MAP was 334 (84), which had a mean duration of 4.3 (1.1) seconds, separated by 10.9 (3) seconds with a mean power output of 7.3 (0.6)W·kg-1 (135% [9%] MAP). These findings highlight the importance of the anaerobic energy system and the interaction between anaerobic and aerobic energy systems. Therefore, the ability to perform numerous efforts above MAP and a high aerobic capacity are essential to be competitive in mountain bike cross-country.

THE PNEUMOBIL DESIGN

The article describes the design of the body of a pneumobil that is to take part in international races. The shape of the body is designed in CAD software with emphasis on aerodynamic properties. There were also limitations in the design of the shape resulting from the safety and technological possibilities of production. The skeleton will be made of epoxy resin and glass fiber, which will be applied to the hoof made of extruded polystyrene by milling. The article describes the method of production, including technological conditions.

BLOOD PRESSURE IS THE KEY PHYSIOLOGICAL INDICATOR OF HIKING PERFORMANCE IN LASER SAILORS

Purpose: The aim of this study is to examine the physiological basis of hiking performance, which is the determinant of performance in laser class sailors. Method: This research was conducted with 16 male athletes between the ages of 15-25 who actively attend laser class races held by Turkish Sailing Federation. The participants were classified as High Performance (HP) and Low Performance (LP) according to their race results and the number of attended international races (as a member of national team). Physical and anthropometric measurements, performance measurements (isometric muscle endurance test during hiking position in simulator) of these volunteers were obtained. During the simulator test, heart rate per minute, systolic and diastolic blood pressure values were monitored and recorded as well. Mann Whitney U test was used to analyze the differences statistically among the groups. Result: Statistically significant differences were observed in the parameters of body mass index, isometric muscle endurance(time to exhaustion),diastolic blood pressure and heart rate during and after the test, and recovery heart rate in the FP and DP groups (p<0.05). Conclusion: The findings of this study show that changes in the blood pressure parameters during the Hiking performance are an important indicator of performance. Monitoring blood pressure in the hiking position in competition-based training can contribute to the determination of the sailor's performance level and training needs. also shows that extensive researches with higher numbers of athletes are needed for future studies.

Using principal component analysis to investigate pacing strategies in elite international canoe kayak sprint races

ABSTRACT The aim of this research was to use principal component analysis (PCA) to investigate the current pacing strategies of elite canoe kayak sprint athletes and to determine if there are differences in pacing patterns between medallists and non-medallists at major international competitions. Velocity data collected using global positioning systems (GPS) from all a-finals of major international competitions in 2016–2017 (including canoe and kayak, single and crew boat, and male and female) were downloaded from the International Canoe Federation’s website. Data were normalised by the average velocity within each race and organised by race distance. In total 10, 14 and 16 races were analysed, and they followed all-out, positive, and ‘seahorse-shaped’ pacing strategies for the 200 m, 500 m, and 1000 m events, respectively. Normalised velocity PC1 (p = 0.039, ES = −0.44) and PC2 scores (p < 0.001, ES = −0.73) for 1000 m races were significantly different between medallists and non-medallists; however, significant differences between PCs were not found between groups in shorter race distances (i.e. 200 m and 500 m). Data collected using GPS provide information that can be used to better prepare athletes for canoe kayak sprint races lasting between 30 s and 240 s in duration.

Anticipation of the entry and spread of Equine Infectious Anemia in Horses in Indonesia

Horse is an attractive commodity in the world of horse matches, both for horse racing and equistrian. Recently, Asian countries including Indonesia have conducted international horse races. Horse traffic from several countries is unavoidable. This movement can lead to the entry of new diseases or the transmission of imported horses from local horses. At present, data on horse disease in Indonesia has not been widely reported, including Equine Infectious Anemia (EIA). This paper discusses EIA disease in horses about the etiology, characterization, spread of disease, its status in Indonesia and its treatment. EIA is a chronic disease characterized by high fever and thrombocytopenia. One of the factors that spread EIA infection, namely through traffic or horse movements. The highest risk factors for the spread of EIA disease are in the equestrian sector, followed by horse as a hobby, horse show or fattening horses for consumption. Wet environmental factors have higher risk to infection than dry areas. Applying the proper quarantine system, monitoring horse disease through surveillance, and implementing biosecurity at farms, location of events and at veterinary clinics, need to be done so that the entry of EIA disease can be anticipated as early as possible. This paper is expected to be useful and can be used as input for policy makers in the horse imports and movement.

Modelling the Surface of Racing Vessel’s Hull by Laser Scanning and Digital Photogrammetry

The knowledge of the hull shape and geometry of a racing vessel is one of the most important factors for predicting boat performance. The Offshore Racing Congress (ORC) rating system specifies the calculation parameters of the hydrodynamic forces of boat lift and drag on the basis of input data as the length of waterline while sailing, displacement, wetted surface and the volume distribution along the hull. It is represented by sophisticated calculations for national as well as international events and races. Measurement using a reflectorless total station in a coordinate system defined by the sailboat hull is the most established method approved by the ORC organisation. The determination of these geometric parameters by new, unconventional technologies, which should provide a quicker and more detailed measurement while preserving the quality and accuracy of results necessary for the handicap calculations was our main objective. Geometrical shapes of a cabin sailboat hull were determined by the technology of terrestrial laser scanning and two methods of digital close-range photogrammetry—convergence case of photogrammetry and Structure-from-Motion (SfM) method. High-Definition Surveying (HDS) targets for laser scanning and coded targets for digital photogrammetry were used throughout all methods in order to transform the resulting data into a single local coordinate system. The resulting models were mutually compared by visual, geometrical and statistical comparison. In conclusion, both technologies were considered suitable, however, with various advantages and disadvantages. Nevertheless, although labour intensive, the SfM photogrammetry can be considered the most suitable method if the correct procedures are followed.

Power Output and Pacing During International Cross-Country Mountain Bike Cycling.

To characterize the physiological profiles of elite cross-country mountain-bike (XCO-MTB) cyclists and to examine their pacing and power-output (PO) distribution during international races. Over 2 competitive seasons, 8 male XCO-MTB cyclists (VO2max 79.9 [5.2]mL·min-1·kg-1, maximal aerobic power [MAP] 411 [18]W and 6.3 [0.4]W·kg-1) regularly undertook incremental tests to assess their PO and heart rate (HR) at first and second ventilatory thresholds (VT1 and VT2) and at VO2max. During the same period, their PO, HR, speed, and cadence were recorded over 13 international races (total of 30 recorded files). Mean PO, speed, cadence, and HR during the races were 283 (22)W (4.31 [0.32]W·kg-1, 68% [5%] MAP), 19.7 (2.1)km·h-1, 68 (8)rpm, and 172 (11) beats·min-1 (91% [2%] HRmax), respectively. The average times spent below 10% of MAP, between 10% of MAP and VT1, between VT1 and VT2, between VT2 and MAP, and above MAP were 25% (5%), 21% (4%), 13% (3%), 16% (3%), and 26% (5%), respectively. Both speed and PO decreased from the start loop to lap 1 before stabilizing until the end of the race. Elite off-road cyclists demonstrated typical values of world-class endurance cyclists with an excellent power-to-mass ratio. This study demonstrated that XCO-MTB races are performed at higher intensities than reported in previous research and are characterized by a fast start followed by an even pace.

GOAL COMMITMENT AND PSYCHOLOGICAL RESILIENCE AMONG CYCLING ATHLETES

Cycling sport is one of the sports that require physical and psychological resilience. It is thought that athletes should show physical and psychological resilience to reach specific target, find solution for unexpected, sudden problems, be patient and be determined in this sport that requires physical and psychological resilience that is done under extreme conditions. It is important to examine goal commitment and psychological resilience of cycling athletes for performance improvement, success motivation and contribution to the studies in this field. Purpose: This study aimed to examine goal commitment and psychological resilience of elite cycling athletes. 94 elite bicycle athletes participating in national and international races between the ages of 18 and 27 participated voluntarily. Resilience Scale for Adults, developed by Friborg et al. (2003), was used to determine psychological resilience of athletes. Goal Commitment Scale, developed by Hollenbeck, Williams and Klein (1989) and adapted to Turkish by Senel and Yildiz (2016), was used to determine goal commitment. Scale reliability coefficient was found to be 0.913. In conclusion, no significant differences were found between sex and psychological resilience and goal commitment. But, significant differences were found between sports ages and subscales of self-perception, perception of future, and structural type of Resilience Scale for Adults. Significant difference was found between sports ages and goal commitment. As sports age increase, so did goal commitment. There was no significant correlation between goal commitment and psychological resilience. Goal commitment and psychological resilience training is recommended for different sports branches requiring physical and psychological resilience. Article visualizations:

An examination of respiratory and metabolic demands of alpine skiing

Background/ObjectiveTo measure the cardiorespiratory and metabolic variables during the giant slalom (GS) skiing activity under actual race conditions using a mobile gas analyzer. MethodsThis study included 20 voluntary male alpine ski racers (mean age, 22.00±1.45 years) who participated in international races. First, incremental running test was conducted to obtain volunteers' maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) values. Second, respiratory data were measured during their performance on the GS course. Before both GS performance and incremental running test and at 1 minute, 3 minutes, and 5 minutes after the tests, blood lactate concentration was measured. ResultsVO2max values of the volunteers were 51.36±2.68 mL/kg/min and they used 74.96% of this during their performance on the GS course. Their blood lactate concentrations reached the maximum level of 13.69±2.06 mmol/L at the 5th minute following the maximal exercise testing. After the GS performance, blood lactate values reached the maximum level of 10.13±0.43 mmol/L at the 3rd minute. While the maximum heart rate was 196.5±4.3 bpm during the maximal exercise testing, it reached 201.7±20 bpm during the GS performance. ConclusionIt is observed that the GS race is a high-intensity activity and that high amount of anaerobic contribution is used by alpine ski racers during the GS race. By contrast, it is understood that the aerobic contribution is also at a considerable level during such an anaerobic activity as GS.