International Relations Policy Research Articles

Historical Analysis of Nepal’s International Relations from a Defence Perspective

Nepal has a track record of being one of the oldest as well as ever sovereign and independent nations of the world. Today, Nepal’s international relations is going through a critical and vulnerable phase. One of the main reasons for this may be that Nepal abruptly abandoned and stopped learning from the deeds of the founding heroes and has not been able to chart and steer an effective national policy strategy in its international relations. In the past, many of the rulers used to be kings and military generals and they had adopted hard power as their main instruments. Today, Nepal cannot think of hard power but rather soft power and smart power. At this point, it would be pertinent to reflect on Nepal’s past international relations policy strategy so it may help to understand the value and role of national security policy strategy as an integral part of successful international relations in the future. This paper has tried to examine the international relations of contemporary Nepal from a defense perspective based on historical references.

Yemeni and regional maritime doctrine in light of the decline of the liberal theory of freedom of navigation in EEZ

The presence of the USCENTCOM , AFRICOM and 34 foreign countries in the vital Yemeni, Arab, and national maritime spheres contributed to a flagrant violation of maritime laws and international political relations. Likewise, the presence and activities of the strategic and tactical military naval units of the aircraft carrier, submarines, and American and British nuclear naval destroyers in the Red Sea. The Gulf of Aden is a breach and violation of international law and agreements regulating freedom of navigation and a blatant assault on Yemeni sovereignty in its vital maritime sphere, as it is located in exclusive Yemeni economic waters, in addition to its nuclear effects in destroying the marine environment and human security. It constitutes a source of danger to food and maritime security, stability, and international peace. The study aims to clarify the influence of Western geopolitical thought and the behavior of American foreign policy in international relations and maritime laws, which is witnessing a major decline and failure in its global policy because it used the policy of American military force to achieve its own political goals and imposed the methodology of Western liberal maritime thought to control and limit the rights of the Yemeni, Arab, and Islamic coastal states. Which contradicts customs, laws, and agreements and affects historical rights and the Yemeni, Arab, and regional maritime domain. The study is expected to confirm the modern Yemeni, Arab, and Islamic hypothesis that the high seas and international maritime waters are within a distance of 200 nautical miles from the baseline and to affirm the right of Yemen and the Arab nation to be protected. The vital area of the United Arab Emirates and the Islamic and regional countries extends from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean, the Arabian Gulf, the eastern and western Indian Ocean to the Antarctic Ocean, and there is a call for holding maritime conferences in order to develop traditional Western maritime legal theories and concepts that seek to limit the rights of coastal states, establish perceptions, and reach an update to the laws regulating freedom of maritime navigation in accordance with the views of the peoples of the world and in response to global changes in multipolarity.

Climate Diplomacy and Geopolitics: Exploring the Role of Climate Policy in International Relations

Purpose: The main objective of this study was to explore the role of climate policy in international relations.
 Methodology: The study adopted a desktop research methodology. Desk research refers to secondary data or that which can be collected without fieldwork. Desk research is basically involved in collecting data from existing resources hence it is often considered a low cost technique as compared to field research, as the main cost is involved in executive’s time, telephone charges and directories. Thus, the study relied on already published studies, reports and statistics. This secondary data was easily accessed through the online journals and library.
 Findings: The findings revealed that there exists a contextual and methodological gap relating to climate policy and geopolitics. Preliminary empirical review revealed that climate diplomacy and geopolitics are inextricably linked in the 21st century, with climate policy playing a central role in shaping international relations. The urgency of addressing climate change has forced nations to collaborate and confront shared challenges, while also introducing new dimensions of competition and complexity. Non-state actors, climate justice considerations, and the evolving global energy landscape all contribute to the intricate tapestry of climate diplomacy. The future of international relations will depend, to a large extent, on how effectively nations navigate these challenges and seize the opportunities presented by climate action to build a more sustainable and equitable world.
 Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: Realism theory, Complex Interdependence theory and the Regime theory may be used to anchor future studies on climate policy. The study recommended promotion of multilateralism, incorporation of climate into foreign policy, supporting vulnerable nations, engagement of non-state actors and incorporation of climate security.

THE ISLAMIC LEGAL POLITICS IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

This paper (Sharia politics in Islamic international relations) deals with the nature of international relations in Islam. Islam established important international principles for this, including mercy, peace, justice, and respect for human dignity. The paper represents the belief of some that Islam was based on the edge of the sword, and that it legitimized the means of force to spread it. However, the reality confirms that Islam came with detailed rules that regulated the relationship of mankind with his Creator and the relationship between human beings. And that the nature of Islam requires understanding, persuasion, and explaining the content of the message to all people, and this nature is not compatible with the use of force of any kind. Accordingly, this paper has been divided into three main sections, first section deals with the organization of Islam for international relations, the second section, deals with war as an exception in international relations in Islam, and the third section deals with causes of war in Islam. The paper concludes several results, the most important of which is that the legal policy in international relations is based on combining two things, namely, adherence to the provisions and rules of Islamic law, while achieving the circumstantial interests of the Islamic state and benefiting from the experiences of relevant human societies, in a manner that does not contradict with Islamic law.

Conceptual foundations of tolerance policy in international relations as a tool for society integrating and identity forming

Conceptual foundations of tolerance policy in international relations as a tool for society integrating and identity forming

HALO: Study protocol for a single-case experimental design study evaluating the moderating impact of a befriending intervention on the association between loneliness and health in older adults.

Background: Loneliness in later life is often addressed with befriending interventions, yet evidence for their effectiveness is limited. Meanwhile it is known that loneliness has a deleterious impact on health. The aim of the study is to evaluate whether a befriending service for older adults mitigates the impact of loneliness on health outcomes, and to identify mechanisms through which befriending interventions might impact upon health. Methods: A mixed methods design is used. The quantitative component utilises an AB single-case experimental design, to gather intensive longitudinal data. These data will be analysed using a generalised additive modelling approach. The qualitative component of the study uses semi-structured dyadic interviews, structured and analysed according to the principles of constructivist grounded theory. Findings will then be triangulated according to an existing mixed methods integration protocol. Discussion: This mixed methods design has the potential to inform national and international policy in relation to befriending interventions for older adults. In addition, there is the potential for study results to inform our theoretical understanding of the nature of the relationship between loneliness and health. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier NCT04301167 (10 th March 2020). Protocol version 1.1, 26 th June 2020.

HALO: Study protocol for a single-case experimental design study evaluating the moderating impact of a befriending intervention on the association between loneliness and health in older adults

Background: Loneliness in later life is often addressed with befriending interventions, yet evidence for their effectiveness is limited. Meanwhile it is known that loneliness has a deleterious impact on health. The aim of the study is to evaluate whether a befriending service for older adults mitigates the impact of loneliness on health outcomes, and to identify mechanisms through which befriending interventions might impact upon health. Methods: A mixed methods design is used. The quantitative component utilises an AB single-case experimental design, to gather intensive longitudinal data. These data will be analysed using a generalised additive modelling approach. The qualitative component of the study uses semi-structured dyadic interviews, structured and analysed according to the principles of constructivist grounded theory. Findings will then be triangulated according to an existing mixed methods integration protocol. Discussion: This mixed methods design has the potential to inform national and international policy in relation to befriending interventions for older adults. In addition, there is the potential for study results to inform our theoretical understanding of the nature of the relationship between loneliness and health. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier NCT04301167 (10 th March 2020). Protocol version 1.1, 26 th June 2020.

Energetska politika u međunarodnim odnosima sa posebnim osvrtom na pitanja energetske bezbednosti Evropske unije

Modern trends in international relations, a growing deficit of energy resources, raising awareness of unsustainability of the existing model of consumption, as well as the negative impact of the greenhouse effect on climate changes, all bring home the issue of adopting new strategies and introduction of structural changes in the field of energy policy. The paper offers a diachronic analysis of the situation regarding energy policy in international relations through considerations of global challenges in energy security, focusing in particular on the challenges of energy security of the European Union. New challenges, especially the climate changes, but also resurfacing of the old ones, such as supply security and increasing global competition, have contributed to defining a common energy policy based on a completely operational internal energy market of the European Union. Current energy policy of the European Union is aimed at encouraging the development of low energy consumption economies, mitigating climate changes, as well as ensuring a higher level of energy security by integrating the European Union energy market and developing energy infrastructure.

Formation of the counter intelligence strategy of Ukraine: national and legal dimension

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to develop the Counterintelligence Strategy as a conceptual document in the field of state security of Ukraine, identifying current security threats to Ukraine, which global landscape has been significantly transformed since the adoption of the Law of Ukraine “On Counterintelligence”, is substantiated. It is proved that the provisions of such Strategy should determine the current and projected counterintelligence environment via a set of the following elements. The nature of real and potential threats in the process of implementing state foreign and domestic policy course determined by Ukraine. Sources of such threats (individual states and their intelligence agencies, terrorist organizations, transnational organized crime, etc.). Features of the identified encroachment objects of foreign intelligence agencies, terrorist and other criminal organizations, including transnational ones. Long time strategy treats like COVID-19 pandemic.Design/methodology/approachDuring the past decades of the XXI century, intelligence has become a crucial tool in the system of determining and implementing the foreign policy in international relations. Modern realities confirm that this political and legal phenomenon directly affects the formation of the foreign policy course of any state, the development of its geopolitical strategy and defense doctrine. Possessing a powerful apparatus for obtaining primary information, fulfillment of government orders for monitoring, evaluation, analysis, forecasting and modeling of possible scenarios of global- or regional-scale events and processes, special services take an active part in perspective and current foreign and domestic policy implementation.FindingsThus, based on the state security paradigm, which cannot be defined in the absence of threats and ensured by their complete elimination, since negative factors for state security objects will always exist, the ensuring of its development requires first of all creation of the conditions under which threats will not be able to limit its development. That is why it is necessary not only to minimize the impact of such factors on vulnerable objects, but also to create a certain “immunity” to their impact, i.e. the ability of the state security system to function effectively in spite of the negative impact. Thus, maintaining the ability to function in terms of the existing threats is the most important area of practical activity for the state security protection, as well as ensuring the legitimate interests of the state.Originality/valueDuring the paper decades of the XXI century, intelligence has become a crucial tool in the system of determining and implementing the foreign policy in international relations. Modern realities confirm that this political and legal phenomenon directly affects the formation of the foreign policy course of any state, the development of its geopolitical strategy and defense doctrine. Possessing a powerful apparatus for obtaining primary information, fulfillment of government orders for monitoring, evaluation, analysis, forecasting and modeling of possible scenarios of global- or regional-scale events and processes, special services take an active part in perspective and current foreign and domestic policy implementation.

HALO: Study protocol for a single-case experimental design study evaluating the moderating impact of a befriending intervention on the association between loneliness and health in older adults

Background: Loneliness in later life is often addressed with befriending interventions, yet evidence for their effectiveness is limited. Meanwhile it is known that loneliness has a deleterious impact on health. The aim of the study is to evaluate whether a befriending service for older adults mitigates the impact of loneliness on health outcomes, and to identify mechanisms through which befriending interventions might impact upon health. Methods: A mixed methods design is used. The quantitative component utilises an AB single-case experimental design, to gather intensive longitudinal data. These data will be analysed using a generalised additive modelling approach. The qualitative component of the study uses semi-structured dyadic interviews, structured and analysed according to the principles of constructivist grounded theory. Findings will then be triangulated according to an existing mixed methods integration protocol. Discussion: This mixed methods design has the potential to inform national and international policy in relation to befriending interventions for older adults. In addition, there is the potential for study results to inform our theoretical understanding of the nature of the relationship between loneliness and health. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier NCT04301167 (10th March 2020). Protocol version 1.1, 26th June 2020.

The Impact of the Domestic Environment in the Change of Foreign Policy- The Case of Russian Policy towards the European Union after the End of the Cold War

Purpose – This paper aims to study the impact of the domestic environment’s components in changing foreign policy. Therefore, the paper focuses on analyzing Russia’s strategies, in the International arena, that has been structured by the domestic factors (leadership, military, security, economics, and identity).
 
 Design/methodology/approach – The paper follows three theories of studying the impact of domestic components into foreign policy in international relations; First it focuses on Foreign Policy Analysis as a traditional analysis in international relations; depending on “Determinants” influencing the foreign policy and the “Instruments/Tools” used to achieve the goals of foreign policy. Second, Neo-Classical Realism Theory, as it tried to explain the importance of internal factors in the foreign policy. Third, Constructivism Theory in International Relations as it concerns Non-state actors and refused the traditional viewing of main concepts in international relations.
 
 Findings – The domestic environment is the background context on which foreign policy is drawn. In general, the domestic environment is within the framework of society; according to it the decision-makers make decisions and include domestic policies (public opinion, geographical location, nature of the political system, main values of society, parties, lobbies…etc.); national expertise can be added in dealing with international political issues.
 
 Originality/Value – This paper proves that there are new forms for foreign policy variables related to the domestic environment and reflects the Economic capabilities, Military Power, Identity, and Leadership into the state's foreign policy.

ULUSLARARASI İLİŞKİLERDE KONSTRÜKTİVİZM VE KONSTRÜKTİVİZM BAKIŞ AÇISINA GÖRE TÜRKMENİSTAN DIŞ POLİTİKASINDA NİYAZOV DÖNEMİNİN DEĞERLENDİRİLMESİ

In the foreign policy of Turkmenistan, which gained its independence after the Cold War, two different periods can be mentioned. The first period is the closed period. This period is the period of President Saparmurat Niyazov (Turkmenbasi) (1991-2007), who became president after the country gained independence. Later on, the president Gurbanguli Berdimuhammedov (2007- ...) is a more effective foreign policy in international relations, especially relations with Turkey in particular were monitored. Turkmen identity and nationalism is the main point of Turkmenistan's foreign policy, which remained under Soviet administration for 75 years. The basic point of view of constructivism, which is taken as a reference in the evaluation of Turkmenistan's foreign policy, is that although there are realist and rationalist policies of states in international relations, it is in fact social, cultural, ethnic and so on. There is a structure and relations that are shaped by feeding from such phenomena. The special emphasis of constructivism is on the human's awareness of the environment in which he lives and the state of consciousness nurtured from this awareness. Constructivists, critical theorists, and postmodernists also stress that there is no external and objective reality. The social and political world is not a physical or material structure that exists outside human consciousness. The international system is not a self-existent structure. Three main objectives and priorities were adopted in Niyazov's Turkmenistan foreign policy. The first is recognition and recognition in the world by centering on Turkmen identity and nationalism. The second is a firm ground on internal and external security. The third is to establish good relations with its neighbors and Turkic states. According to this, while the second case is a rational foreign policy choice, the first and third cases have traces of identity and nationalism and can be evaluated with a constructivist approach. In this study, evaluations have been made with a constructivist point of view on Niyazov period in Turkmenistan foreign policy based on nationalism, identity and social based facts.

THE THEORETICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF FOREIGN POLICY IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS- AN ANALYSES

Foreign policy of a country is formulated to safeguard and promote its national interests in the conduct of relations with other countries, bilaterally and multilaterally. It is a direct reflection of a country’s traditional values and overall national policies, her aspirations and self-perception. Thus, Foreign Policies are the strategies, methods, guidelines, agreements that usually national governments use to perform their actions in the international arena. In contemporary times, every state establishes diplomatic, economic, trade, educational, cultural and political relations with other nations and that compels to maintain its relation with each other as well as with international organizations and non-governmental actors in the international relations. Thus, International Relations attempts to explain the behaviours that occur across the boundaries of states and institutions such as private, state, governmental, non-governmental and inter-governmental oversee those interactions. However, this paper try to articulate the theoretical importance of foreign policy in international relations and how it helps in maintaining relations among the countries at the international level.

ANALISIS DIPLOMASI INDONESIA – MALAYSIA DALAM MASALAH PERBATASAN

The main function of diplomacy is to protect and promote national identity in this article will discuss the analysis of Indonesia and Malaysia diplomacy in border disputes, This will be examined by looking at the international relations which is then reviewed also the advantages and disadvantages seen in terms of policies and efforts made by the government for domestic and foreign purposes. Therefore, in this section the various studies of International Relations policy as well as activities of Indonesian society and Malaysia are the nation of one Malay family and the majority of the population are Muslim. Always between these two countries stumble stones like some cases of migrant workers, the loss of the two islands Sipadan Ligitan, the case on the Ambalat border, the Indonesian lndonesian tracking in Malaysia, the claiming of the Reog culture, the Batik, the Rasa Sayange song and a series of problems will become a common thread when dith retreats into the eyeglasses of the past. Key Words : Diplomacy,Conflict, Negotiation, Mediation, Conciliation

ANALISIS DIPLOMASI INDONESIA – MALAYSIA DALAM MASALAH PERBATASAN

<p><strong><em>Abstract</em></strong></p><p><em>The main function of diplomacy is to protect and promote national identity in this article will discuss the analysis of Indonesia and Malaysia diplomacy in border disputes, This will be examined by looking at the international relations which is then reviewed also the advantages and disadvantages seen in terms of policies and efforts made by the government for domestic and foreign purposes. Therefore, in this section the various studies of International Relations policy as well as activities of Indonesian society and Malaysia are the nation of one Malay family and the majority of the population are Muslim. Always between these two countries stumble stones like some cases of migrant workers, the loss of the two islands Sipadan Ligitan, the case on the Ambalat border, the Indonesian lndonesian tracking in Malaysia, the claiming of the Reog culture, the Batik, the Rasa Sayange song and a series of problems will become a common thread when dith retreats into the eyeglasses of the past.</em></p><p><em> </em></p><p><strong><em>Key Words :</em></strong><em> Diplomacy,Conflict, Negotiation, Mediation, Conciliation</em><strong></strong></p>

China-Africa media relations: What we know so far

The increased presence of Chinese media in Africa has been a topic of much debate in recent years, and has given rise to a burgeoning research area. Seen as a platform upon which China can exert its ‘soft power’ in Africa as part of its outward-looking international relations policy, Chinese media has been considered instrumental in portraying a more positive picture of China among African audiences, partly in an attempt to support the expansion of Chinese economic activities on the continent. Critics have however questioned the influence that Chinese media practices may have on journalistic value systems and press freedom on the continent. These criticisms assume that Chinese media may have a big impact on African media, although the empirical basis for such claims have often been lacking.

The Study of Foreign Policy in International Relations

Foreign Policy decision-making is agreed to be one of the greatest instrument at a state’s disposal to pursue its national interests. It is considered as a full political activity of states. A good Foreign Policy would obviously lead a state in fulfilling its national interests and acquiring rightful place among comity of nations. As such the study of Foreign Policy forms an important part of International Studies. However, the first problem that one faces in the study of Foreign Policy is the problem of definition or clear meaning of the term. When used, it is either out of context or entails a different meaning. As such, it becomes a “neglected concept” as most people dealing with the subject have felt confident that they knew what foreign policy was. This neglect has been one of the most serious obstacles to providing more adequate and comprehensive explanations of Foreign Policy. This article, seeks to provide a comprehensive meaning about the concept of Foreign Policy, and also look into some of the things that determines the foreign policy decision-making of a country. This work, will give many students, researchers and policy makers a good idea of what foreign policy entails and how such policy decisions are being made.

Australian Foreign Policy under the Abbott Government: Foreign Policy as Domestic Politics?

While foreign policy featured prominently on the Australian political agenda in late 2014, the manner of Australia's engagement with the world challenges the idea of a ‘pivot’ from domestic politics to foreign policy. In particular, the government demonstrated a tendency to prioritise domestic political considerations, in particular public opinion, in its dealings with the outside world. This was evident across a range of issue areas: from the ‘internationalist’ agenda of asylum, climate change and aid to more traditional concerns such as bilateral relations with Indonesia and international security. This article explores these dynamics and asks what implications this has for both Australian foreign policy and theoretical accounts of the role and desirability of public engagement with foreign policy in international relations thought.

Forum: China’s Silk Road Economic Belt: African perspectives and implications

This forum piece seeks to probe the connection between China and Africa regarding the current Chinese concept dubbed the “Silk Road Economic Belt”, variously referred to by such synonyms such as “new Silk Road”, “Silk Road and Maritime Silk Road”, “Chinese and 21st-Century New Silk Road” and “Silk Road of the Sea”. What are the historical antecedents of the African dimension of this new Chinese zeitgeist? How is Africa featuring in the embryonic stages of this multifarious concept - one that has indeed been elevated to the heights of international relations policy levels? What are the historical, diplomatic, economic and cultural implications for Africa and what steps is China likely to take in the months and years ahead? How will Africans, especially African leaders and policymakers, respond to the anticipated implementation of the concept? I conclude by posing a couple of forward looking issues including perspectives on how African leaders and policymakers might react to the Silk Road when its anticipated roll out in Africa begins.

Norman Angell and the logic of economic interdependence revisited: 1914, 2014

There are regional fears that Beijing will use its growing clout to embark on an aggressive, expansionist policy in International Relations, hence the possibility of a collision course with the USA reminiscent of how Anglo-German tensions at the beginning of the twentieth century escalated into World War One. Closer scrutiny, however, suggests grounds for downplaying the likelihood of such a scenario. We outline this argument based on the following points: (i) there is a much higher level of economic interdependence between China and the USA today, compared to Britain and Germany, (ii) the corresponding levels of nationalism in China and the USA are lower than in Britain and Germany, (iii) the political alignments of international relations in the Asia Pacific in 2014 are less ambiguous than those in Europe in 1914, hence less potential for diplomatic miscalculation and (iv) the military and economic instruments of power that the USA and China possess, by being far more lethal than those held by Britain and Germany in 1914, would render any conflict between them an unacceptably costly catastrophe.