International Planned Parenthood Federation Research Articles

HEALTH LAW IMPLEMENTATION REALIZES GENDER EQUALITY AND WOMEN'S EMPOWERMENT

The millennium development program (MDGs) in quality health services, including women's reproductive health, is not evenly distributed, due to poor infrastructure and the unequal quality of health services between provinces. It is hoped that Indonesian Health has succeeded in achieving most of Indonesia's MDGs targets, namely 49 of the 67 MDGs indicators can be improved. In normative juridical research, law is conceptualized as norms or rules that apply in society. Using a statutory approach and a conceptual approach in health law. There is a guarantee of a sense of security in accordance with Article 28G Paragraph (1) of the 1945 Constitution, thereby providing women's rights in accordance with the mandate given by the state and guaranteeing rights without discrimination and gender differences. There is the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, which emphasizes that women's human rights are respected, then women's reproductive health rights have also been formulated by the International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF) since 1996, namely the right to equality and freedom from all forms of discrimination. In the end, support for women's empowerment must involve many parties from politics, PUG institutions, Human Resources, Budget, Gender Analysis Tools, and Community Participation.
 Keywords: gender equality, health law, reproductive health rights

Planning a Family: Birth Control, Sterilization, and the Welfare of Society in Cold War Brazil

This article explores the history of family planning during the Brazilian military dictatorship by focusing on the activity of The Society of Family Welfare (Sociedade do Bem-Estar Familiar no Brasil, BEMFAM), founded in 1965 and affiliated with the International Planned Parenthood Federation. BEMFAM’s campaigns were met with criticism from various fronts. The Catholic Church condemned the use of contraception methods. The military, which had ruled the country since taking power in 1964, opposed BEMFAM’s efforts to curtail population growth and its international partnerships. Leftist organizations attacked BEMFAM as well, denouncing its initiatives as a form of criminal Western imperialism. The denunciations ultimately led to a parliamentary inquiry into the activities of BEMFAM. Analyzing the dictatorship’s intelligence reports, state records, and BEMFAM’s publications, the article elucidates how population control models, Cold War ideologies, and gendered politics shaped health and reproduction in military Brazil.

6.O. Workshop: Overview of Comprehensive Sexuality Education Status in Moldova, Georgia, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan

Abstract Sexual and reproductive health (SRH) is a key dimension of overall health and wellbeing of individuals. Comprehensive Sexuality Education (CSE) is one of the most important means of promoting and supporting youth is their sexual and overall development, and a key component of HIV and sexually transmitted infections (STIs) prevention. It is widely recognised that school plays a central role in learning about health and health promotion skills, including sexuality and sexual health. Nevertheless, there is often a lack of evaluation of CSE implementation in school curriculums. This is why UNFPA (United Nations Population Fund) and BZgA (Bundeszentrale für gesundheitliche Aufklärung), in cooperation with UNESCO((United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), WHO (World Health Organization) and IPPF EN (International Planned Parenthood Federation), conducted a study in Moldova, Georgia, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan to assess the status of CSE. In this workshop, we will describe the study process, reflect on the main findings in four countries and discuss two case studies of Moldova and Georgia. The speakers will also share their experiences of translating these findings into advocacy measures and achievements since the study conducted in 2022. The data was collected using the standardized Sexuality Education Review and Assessment Tool (SERAT) via desk reviews of relevant policies, curricula and national data, questionnaires, stakeholder interviews (e.g., with teachers, representatives of technical working groups and ministries of education, young people) and discussions to validate the findings. Overall, we have seen that all four countries teach sexuality education, which is supported by adequate legal and policy frameworks, and integrate it into their school curricula. The comprehensiveness of the curriculum, teacher training and learning methods differ across the four countries. In Georgia, the biggest CSE-related challenge is that there is a stigma in society around sexuality-related issues and there is a need to support an open dialog with key stakeholders. In Moldova, this was the second SERAT assessment within 5 years, which demonstrated a significant progress in the development of sexuality education program since 2017, achieving a much higher score of compliance with the international standards for CSE. Key messages • This study shows that the four countries assessed are on a positive track in implementing and expanding their sexuality education programmes, which are supported by a legal and policy environment. • Gaps still remain in teacher training, monitoring and evaluation, and the comprehensiveness of the delivered content.

PARADIGM SHIFTS IN SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH: UNRAVELING SOCIO-CULTURAL DETERMINANTS IMPACTING MARRIED WOMEN IN INDIA

This comprehensive review paper explores the intricate connections between socio-cultural determinants and the sexual and reproductive health (SRH) of married women in India. Drawing insights from an extensive array of literature, reports, and articles identified through targeted keyword searches in leading databases such as Academia, Jstor, ResearchGate, Google Scholar, Scopus, and PubMed, this paper encapsulates the trajectory of SRH discourse from the years 1985 to 2022. Over the last three decades, particularly post the International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) in 1994, the narrative on SRH has evolved from a narrow focus on disease to a more extensive paradigm encompassing biomedical and socio-cultural elements. Emphasizing the crucial role of gender equality, socially constructed gender roles, cultural and sub-cultural norms, and the recognition of reproductive health as a fundamental right, the analysis draws from authoritative sources like the World Health Organization (WHO), International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF), International Center for Research on Women (ICRW), and National Family Health Survey-4 (NFHS-4) data from 2015-16. The findings underscore the intricate interrelationship between social relations and gender roles, emphasizing their profound impact on women's reproductive health. Advocating for a paradigm shift from a woman-centric approach to a more inclusive gender equality approach, this review paper recommends interdisciplinary policies. These recommendations are aimed at enhancing reproductive health outcomes for women, concurrently elevating the overall quality of life in developing countries, with a particular focus on the context of India.

Quality testing of mifepristone and misoprostol in 11 countries.

Previous studies have demonstrated quality concerns with misoprostol. Mifepristone, however, has not been extensively assessed for quality. Between 2020 and 2021, Concept Foundation and the International Planned Parenthood Federation conducted a study to determine the quality of these medical abortion drugs in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). The collection of batch samples of misoprostol and mifepristone was carried out by trained sampling agents in selected LMIC. Single drug packs and combipacks were sampled. A World Health Organization prequalified laboratory conducted testing method verifications and subsequent sample analysis. Tests included identification, assay, related substances, and content uniformity for misoprostol, and identification, assay, related substances, and dissolution for mifepristone. Samples were collected from Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Democratic Republic of Congo, India, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Uganda and Vietnam. Sixty-four pooled batch samples were tested, consisting of 31 combipacks, 26 misoprostol-only and seven mifepristone-only products. Overall, 54.7% of samples were non-compliant with one or more of the specifications, representing 51.6% of combipack products, 57.1% of misoprostol tablets analyzed and 23.7% of mifepristone tablets. One falsified misoprostol-only product was found. The present study confirms that a significant problem still exists in relation to the quality of medical abortion drugs in LMIC. For misoprostol, our findings suggest that historical concerns around primary packaging may have been largely resolved but that manufacturing processes for both finished product and active pharmaceutical ingredient need to be improved. The present study also provides evidence of mifepristone quality issues.

Knowledge and attitudes of health professionals in Chile towards people living with human immunodeficiency virus: A cross-national survey.

Introduction: People living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) often experience discrimination from both other individuals and the health personnel who care for them. Chile has experienced a marked increase in the number of new HIV cases.Methods: Prospective cross-sectional study. The HIV/AIDS questionnaire for providers and health personnel was obtained from the International Planned Parenthood Federation, initially carrying out a pilot test and evaluating its validity.Results: A total of 784 health professionals answered the questionnaire correctly. Among them, 68.4% (n = 536) were women, and 36.2% (n = 284) were physicians. The study revealed that more than 90% of respondents had a positive attitude towards caring for people living with HIV, and more than 75% did not mind buying food from them or sharing services with them. Furthermore, more than 99% rejected the religiously endorsed labeling of people living with HIV/AIDS as immoral. Additionally, 95.5% (n = 749) mentioned that they did not feel anxious about knowing whether the next patient on their care list was living with HIV, and 76.9% (n = 603) of the respondents felt safe taking blood samples.Conclusions: Chilean health professionals have good knowledge about HIV infection and its mode transmission. Their attitudes towards people living with HIV are also generally positive.

Polish Experts in School-based Sex Education and the West: Exchanging Ideas through the IPPF (1956–1989)

In this paper I examine the relationship between Polish experts on school-based sex education and international developments in the field during the post-war period. From 1956 onwards, Polish experts, hoping to introduce sex education to schools, drew on Western experience and knowledge. Using Polish sources, I focus on the ways in which this knowledge was transmitted, the role of the International Planned Parenthood Federation, and the approach of Polish experts towards the West. I argue that during the late 1950s and 1960s, Polish experts valued and relied exclusively on Western models. International exchange on sex education intensified in the 1970s and 1980s, with the Polish expert Mikołaj Kozakiewicz becoming a regional leader within the international family planning movement. However, as Polish experts became more critical about certain Western models of sex education, they began to promote the socialist model of family life education as a more appropriate option.

School-based sexuality Education in Europe and Central Asia

Abstract Introduction In 2016, the BZgA and the European Network of the International Planned Parenthood Federation initiated an extensive survey regarding the development and current status of sexuality education (SE) in Europe and Central Asia, which included 25 selected countries of the European WHO Region. Since 2000, remarkable progress has been made in the region in developing and integrating SE curricula in school settings. The majority of the surveyed countries teach basic elements of SE in schools. Yet, in about half of the countries, there is still some reticence in understanding the benefits of SE for the health and well-being of young people. In countries with fully developed comprehensive SE programmes, the school is the main source of information on sexuality for young people. In the other countries young people tend to rely on information from friends or peers and the internet. The findings also showed a gap in teacher training on sexuality education. Methods The Survey included a detailed questionnaire, among member associations of IPPF EN and government agencies responsible for SE. A random sample was drawn from the 50 states of the region which is considered representative for the entire region. All 25 IPPF EN members and 16 of the 25 government agencies responded. Results and discussion Remarkable progress has been made in developing and integrating SE in formal school curricula. In 11 of the 21 countries, SE is a mandatory teaching subject, and in six additional countries it is partly mandatory. In four additional countries it is optional. Despite the progress, there are still shortcomings and gaps in providing the full spectrum of SE. Conclusions If provided, SE tends to focus primarily on the biological aspects and prevention of HIV/STIs and unwanted pregnancy. There is a need to broaden the spectrum of topics that are addressed to include gender equality, sexuality, violence and sexual abuse, human rights and empowerment.

The intimate labour of internationalism: maternalist humanitarians and the mid-twentieth century family planning movement

AbstractThis article moves past high politics and the most prominent activists to explore the daily, intimate practice of international movement building by mid-level fieldworkers within the International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF) during its first decade of existence (1952–62). It illustrates how fieldworkers and the IPPF’s practitioner-oriented newsletter Around the World attempted to bridge the ideological and geographic diversity of the family planning movement and connect with advocates around the world through an emotive narrative of suffering, love, and global humanity, reinforced by affective bonds and women’s volunteerism. The story of global family planning must thus be seen not only as part of the history of eugenics, population control, and feminism, but also as part of the longer trajectory of maternalist humanitarianism. This mid-twentieth century version of maternalist humanitarianism built on earlier traditions but also incorporated concepts of human rights, critiques of dominant gender and sexual norms, and an official commitment to local self-determination in the context of decolonization movements. Still, the organization was plagued by the problems that shape humanitarianism more broadly, including the difficulty of moving past colonialist discourses, deeply rooted feelings of racial superiority, and the contradictions inherent in attempts to impose an impossible ideal of political neutrality in a politically complex world. Looking at the history of global family planning from this perspective thus helps us understand how the different traditions, intimate relationships, and practical experiences mid-level actors bring to their work shape the broader process of international movement building, beyond high-level political and ideological activism.

Preparing for and responding to sexual and reproductive health in disaster settings: evidence from Fiji and Tonga

BackgroundPacific Island countries are vulnerable to disasters, including cyclones and earthquakes. Disaster preparedness is key to a well-coordinated response to preventing sexual violence and assisting survivors, reducing the transmission of HIV and other STIs, and preventing excess maternal and neonatal mortality and morbidity. This study aimed to identify the capacity development activities undertaken as part of the SPRINT program in Fiji and Tonga and how these enabled the sexual and reproductive health (SRH) response to Tropical Cyclones Winston and Gita.MethodsThis descriptive qualitative study was informed by a framework designed to assess public health emergency response capacity across various levels (systems, organisational, and individual) and two phases of the disaster management cycle (preparedness and response). Eight key informants were recruited purposively to include diverse individuals from relevant organisations and interviewed by telephone, Zoom, Skype and email. Template analysis was used to examine the data.FindingsDifferences in the country contexts were highlighted. The existing program of training in Tonga, investment from the International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF) Humanitarian Hub, the status of the Tonga Family Health Association as the key player in the delivery of SRH, together with its long experience of delivering contract work in short time-frames and strong relationship with the Ministry of Health (MoH) facilitated a relatively smooth and rapid response. In contrast, there had been limited capacity development work in Fiji prior to Winston, requiring training to be rapidly delivered during the immediate response to the cyclone with the support of surge staff from IPPF. In Fiji, the response was initially hampered by a lack of clarity concerning stakeholder roles and coordination, but linkages were quickly built to enable a response. Participants highlighted the importance of personal relationships, individuals’ and organisations' motivation to respond, and strong rapport with the community to deliver SRH.DiscussionThis study highlights the need for comprehensive activities at multiple levels within a country and across the Pacific region to build capacity for a SRH response. While the SPRINT initiative has been implemented across several regions to improve organisational and national capacity preparedness, training for communities can be strengthened. This research outlines the importance of formalising partnerships and regular meetings and training to ensure the currency of coordination efforts in readiness for activation. However, work is needed to further institutionalise SRH in emergencies in national policy and accountability mechanisms.

Reproductive Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Globally reproductive health services such as contraception and abortion are impacted and are not accessible to a considerable population. The International Planned Parenthood Federation reported anticipated shortage of contraception as the lockdown measures led to reduction in the manufacturing of contraceptives. A recent analysis by the Guttmacher Institute estimated the potential effects of the pandemic. It was found that a 10% decline of sexual and reproductive health services due to COVID-19, would mean an additional 15.4 million unintended pregnancies, over 3.3 million unsafe abortions and 28,000 maternal deaths. The UN Secretary General has issued a call to continue the delivery of sexual and reproductive health services even without prescription. The focus is now to provide vaccines, and therefore, a number of research organizations and pharmaceutical industries are working on their production. One of the reasons for vaccine refusal is the concern that it may affect female and male reproductive functions. However, it is important to correct this misunderstanding as vaccination does not affect fertility. In most cases, vaccination during pregnancy and lactation can be considered safe and effective.

A Landscape Analysis of Offering HIV Testing Services Within Family Planning Service Delivery.

Introduction: Offering HIV testing services (HTS) within sexual and reproductive health (SRH) services is a priority, especially for women who have a substantial risk. To reach women with HIV who do not know their status and prevent mother-to-child HIV transmission, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends routinely offering HTS as part of family planning (FP) service delivery in high HIV burden settings. We conducted a landscape analysis to assess HTS uptake and HIV positivity in the context of FP/SRH services.Assessment of Research and Programs: We searched records from PubMed, four gray literature databases, and 13 organization websites, and emailed 24 organizations for data on HTS in FP/SRH services. We also obtained data from International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF) affiliates in Eswatini, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Namibia, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Unique programs/studies from records were included if they provided data on, or barriers/facilitators to, offering HTS in FP/SRH. Overall, 2,197 records were screened and 12 unique programs/studies were eligible, including 10 from sub-Saharan Africa. Four reported on co-delivery of SRH services (including FP), with reported HTS uptake between 17 and 94%. Six reported data on HTS in FP services: four among general FP clients; one among couples; and one among female sex workers, adolescent girls, and young women. Two of the six reported HTS uptake >50% (51%, 419/814 Kenya; 63%, 5,930/9,439 Uganda), with positivity rates of 2% and 4.1%, respectively. Uptake was low (8%, 74/969 Kenya) in the one FP program offering pre-exposure prophylaxis. In the IPPF program, seven countries reported HTS uptake in FP services and ranged from 4% in Eswatini to 90% in Lesotho; between 0.6% (Uganda) and 8% (Eswatini) of those tested were HIV positive.Implications: Data on providing HTS in FP/SRH service delivery were sparse and HTS uptake varied widely across programs.Actionable Recommendations: As countries expand HTS in FP/SRH appropriate to epidemiology, they should ensure data are reported and monitored for progress and impact.

The Utilization of Sexual and Reproductive Health Services among young people: A cross-sectional study in Greece

Purpose: To explore young people’s experiences of public or private services received for their sexual and reproductive healthcare. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out involving 358 students from vocational post-secondary education during the academic year 2018-2019, using a questionnaire based on the directions of the Youth Friendly Sexual and Reproductive Health Services (SRHS) proposed by the International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF). Results: Out of 358 students, only 35(9.78%) visited public health services, while 85 (23.74%) visited both public and private services.  Gynaecologists, in private sectors, were visited by 127 students of whom 34.6% and 33,1% were between the ages of 18-20 and 21-30 years, respectively.  111 students (31.01%) did not use any service. A slight difference between the staff friendliness and the services received between the public and private sectors was observed. Similarly, a marginal lead was apparent in the private sector with regards to availability of appointments, emergencies and privacy. In the public sector, fewer participants were informed of the abortion services available. Conclusions:  The satisfaction rate was quite high regarding healthcare consultation, in both sectors. However, counseling on contraceptive methods, information on the prevention of sexually transmitted infections, and other aspects of sexual and reproductive health were not satisfactorily covered. Finally, participants wished for more counseling and a greater focus on personal concerns.

Virðing: Lykilþáttur í kynheilbrigði ungs fólks

Í íslenskum og erlendum samfélögum bendir margt til þess að vanvirðingar gæti gagnvart kynverund einstaklingsins og er MeToo-byltingin dæmi um viðbragð við þeim vanda. Tilgangur þessarar rannsóknar er að varpa ljósi á hugtökin virðingu og vanvirðingu í sambandi við kynheilbrigði ungs fólks og út frá rétti þess til kynheilbrigðis. Gerð var endurgreining á tveimur eigindlegum rannsóknum sem byggðust á viðtölum við unga menn. Einnig var byggt á MeToo-frásögnum af kynferðisofbeldi gagnvart unglingsstúlkum. Gögnin voru greind út frá virðingu og vanvirðingu. Niðurstöður sýna að sjálfsvirðing er ungum karlmönnum mikilvæg í jafningjahópum en einnig við kaup og notkun smokka. Þeim finnst mikilvægt að virða samþykki hins aðilans og telja virðingu vera einn af lykilþáttum góðs kynlífs. Vanvirðing ungra manna birtist í umræðu um ráðandi karlmennsku en einnig þegar samþykki fyrir samförum er hunsað. Lýsingar á nauðgun unglingsstúlkna sýna fram á mikla vanvirðingu gagnvart rétti þeirra til kynheilbrigðis. Niðurstöðurnar benda til þess að virðing sé mikilvæg fyrir vellíðan einstaklingsins sem kynveru og hið gagnstæða gildi um vanvirðingu. Fræða þarf ungt fólk um rétt þess til kynheilbrigðis og um einkennandi þætti heilbrigðs kynferðislegs sambands.

Personal reflections 25 years after the International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo

Personal reflections 25 years after the International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo

Sexuality education in Europe – An assessment of the current state, challenges and good practice

Abstract Background Comprehensive sexuality education is a crucial factor for protecting the health and well-being of children and young people. A recent assessment, conducted by the Federal Centre for Health Education and the International Planned Parenthood Federation European Network (IPPF EN), gives an up-to-date overview of the current status of sexuality education (SE) in schools in 25 European and Central Asian countries. It further provides information on challenges and good practice in this field. Methods Pre-tested questionnaires were sent to representatives of governmental (Ministries of Health or Education) and nongovernmental organisations (IPPF member associations) in 25 countries in Europe and Central Asia. All representatives of the nongovernmental (25) and two-thirds of those in governmental organisations (16) responded. The questions were grouped under five themes related to SE: legal framework, status of implementation, barriers and opposition, youth-friendly sexual and reproductive health (SRH) services, and national data on adolescent SRH. Results In 15 of the 25 countries surveyed, a legal framework exists (law/ policy/ strategy) which supports SE in schools. In 11 countries, SE is mandatory in schools, and in 10 countries SE clearly has a comprehensive character. In most countries, SE is integrated into broader teaching subjects, e.g. biology or life skills education. A lack of teacher training and of monitoring and evaluation of SE programmes has been identified in the majority of countries. Conclusions In the past two decades, remarkable progress has been made in developing and implementing SE in the region. Nevertheless, further improvements are urgently needed, as differences between and within countries persist. These include the quality and the comprehensiveness of SE programmes, the monitoring and evaluation of these programmes and the development and implementation of teacher training. Key messages Remarkable progress has been made in implementing sexuality education in Europe and Central Asia. Nevertheless, further action is needed to reduce differences in implementation and quality between and within countries.

POPULATION CONTROL, DEVELOPMENT, AND GHANA'S NATIONAL FAMILY PLANNING PROGRAMME, 1960–1972

AbstractThe National Family Planning Programme (NFPP) was launched in Ghana in May 1970. It was a tool to implement the 1969 Population Policy Paper, which the military government, the National Liberation Council (NLC), had written with the aid of Ford Foundation advisers. The policy paper reiterated international ‘overpopulation’ discourses that pushed for national planning to stem population growth, especially in ‘developing’ countries. Indeed, it constituted an example of development planning. It discursively linked Ghana's prosperity, and modernity, to stemming rapid population growth through fertility limitation. When the NFPP was launched by the Progress Party (PP) government in 1970, its focus was to implement the population policy by limiting population growth through curbing fertility. International discourses of development and population, as well as the specific interventions of organizations such as the Ford Foundation, the Population Council, and the International Planned Parenthood Federation, shaped Ghana's family planning story. However, choices over the implementation of family planning were ultimately linked to governments’ modernization and development projects and ideologies. Different approaches to family planning by the Nkrumah, NLC, and PP governments highlight the fact that family planning was ultimately political, but legitimized by development discourses of global and local origin.

The branch performance tool: A methodological approach for continuous monitoring of programme efficiencies of service delivery interventions

Background: Programme efficiency is a vital factor in achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in an environment of scarce resources. The branch performance tool (BPT) developed by the International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF) is an effective tool for continuous monitoring of programme efficiency in the health sector. Objectives: The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of BPT in improving programme efficiencies and provide recommendations for further improvements. Methods: The service delivery data, collected through an Internet-based Monitoring and Evaluation Information Management System (MEIMS), as well as costing data over a period of three consecutive years (2013–2015), were fed into the BPT. Data on performance against key efficiency indicators (KPI), measured through data envelopment analysis at each service delivery point (SDP), were used to inform the development of an action plan at the end of each year. Lessons learnt on the best practices of well-performing SDPs and on the improvement opportunities of low-efficient SDPs identified through the BPT were presented during programmatic review workshops and formed the basis of management action. Results: The organisation met all its efficiency targets in 2013–2015, including increase in number of clients per staff day from 1.9 to 3.0, spike in the cost recovery ratio from 20% to 29%, reduction in cost per SRH service from $3.6 to $2.7 and decrease in overhead cost as a percentage of total organisation level cost from 20.5% to 12.8%. Conclusions: Branch performance tool is effective for evidence-based decision-making on programme efficiency of service delivery interventions in the health sector. It has potential for further improvement and replication in the health sector, which will contribute to the pursuit of SDG3.

English Women Doctors, Contraception and Family Planning in Transnational Perspective (1930s-70s).

This paper explores the influence of English female doctors on the creation of the International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF) and the production and circulation of contraceptive knowledge in England and, to a lesser extent in France, between 1930 and 1970. By drawing on the writings of female doctors and proceedings of international conferences as well as the archives of the British Medical Women's Federation (MWF) and Family Planning Association (FPA), on the one hand, and Mouvement Français pour le Planning Familial (MFPF), on the other, this paperexplores the agency of English female doctors at the national and transnational level. I recover their pioneering work and argue that they were pivotal in legitimising family planning within medical circles. I then turn to their influence on French doctors after World WarII. Not only were English medical women active and experienced agents in the family planning movement in England; they also represented a conduit of information and training crucial for French doctors. Transfer of knowledge across the channel was thus a decisive tool for implementing family planning services in France.

Reproductive and Sexual Health Consequences of Child Marriage: A Review of literature

Background & aim: marriage, which defined as a formal marriage or informal union before the age of 18 years, occurs widely throughout the world. marriage directly impacts girls’ education, and sexual as well as psychological well-being. In this regard, the current review was conducted to examine the and sexual health consequences of child marriage. Methods: This review was conducted by searching the scientific databases including PubMed and Google Scholar as well as websites of various international organizations active in health issues between 1946 and 2018. Key words for searching included Child marriage , marriage ,sexual health, reproductive health, and maternal mortality . Published articles and also publications of International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF), United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF), World Health Organization (WHO) and Center for Reproductive Rights (CRR) were reviewed. Results: marriage as a result of poverty has many adverse consequences on and sexual health of girls. These include death during childbirth, physical and sexual violence, isolation, depression, cervical cancer and risk of sexually transmitted diseases (STD). Teen pregnant women are at high risk of preterm birth as well as neonatal death more than other women. Conclusion: Girls' marriage at an early age can increase the risk of sexual and complications. Therefore, training programs should be implemented to increase the awareness of society, parents, and religious leaders, to empower girls in this regard.