International Pet Trade Research Articles

South Africa as a Donor of Its Native and Exotic Species to the International Pet Trade

The global pet trade is a thriving multibillion-dollar industry, involving the international exchange of various species and regulated by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). South Africa plays a significant role as both an importer and exporter within this market. By analysing over 13 million records from the CITES database, spanning from 1975 to 2023, we aimed to access South Africa’s role in the international pet trade and to analyse trade volume and trends over time. Our findings indicate that alien species dominate exports, particularly birds and mammals, while native species are traded in lower volume, involving only a few species. The top 10 traded species for birds and mammals belong to the genera Agapornis and Callithrix, while 80% of reptile exports were native, with Stigmochelys pardalis being the most exported species. Bird and mammal exports are primarily composed of captive-bred individuals, whereas both captive-bred and wild-sourced individuals contribute to reptile exports. Approximately 100 countries import various species from South Africa, with Asia and Europe as major importers of birds. The extensive exportation of South Africa’s native species, particularly reptiles, raises significant conservation concerns regarding the potential impact on local biodiversity.

A Snapshot of the Global Trade of South African Native Vertebrate Species Not Listed on CITES.

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) aims to prevent the overexploitation of species by controlling their trade. However, there is currently no international regulatory framework to protect the trade of non-CITES species. We examined the LEMIS database, online trade, and scientific literature with the aim of identifying and compiling a list of South African native species traded as pets and wildlife products. We found that there are 223 non-CITES species traded as wildlife products and 95 species traded as pets. Mammals and birds were the most traded taxa for wildlife products, while reptiles and amphibians were mostly traded as pets. At the least, species traded as wildlife products and pets are currently not facing extinction, as most are categorized as Least Concern. However, some endemic species have an unknown population size, with Sclerophrys pantherina and Neamblysomus gunningi being Endangered. The international pet trade involves 10 countries, with the USA, the Czech Republic, and the UK being the largest importers. The trade of species as wildlife products involves 20 countries, with the USA being the major importer. This study emphasizes the necessity of strict regulations and international cooperation to control the wildlife trade effectively.

Use of consumer insights to inform behavior change interventions aimed at illegal pet turtle trade in China.

Illegal poaching and overexploitation for the international pet trade are among the greatest threats to freshwater turtles in Southeast Asia. Expanding consumer research in China is crucial to filling knowledge gaps about the scale and structure of illegal trade and developing audience-targeted and relevant interventions that may reduce demand for illegal turtles as pets. We applied mixed methods to provide a detailed understanding of the consumer side of the illegal pet turtle trade in China. We conducted 30 interviews with key stakeholders and online surveys (n=2456) of turtle keepers via community forums. From these, we identified 3 core consumer groups based on their prior turtle-keeping experience, species exposure, and potential for future purchases. We conducted a thematic qualitative analysis of concepts related to the capability, opportunity, motivation, and behavior (COM-B) model to determine the factors influencing the illegal pet turtle trade and to identify barriers to illegal purchases. Specifically, we identified purchasers' capabilities, opportunities, and motivations in the context of legality, enforcement risk, captive breeding, and impacts on wild population. We developed consumer journey maps (i.e., visual representations of customer's experiences throughout their buying journey) for core consumer groups. These maps illustrate the sequential behaviors and processes that consumers undertake when purchasing turtles, from initial exposure to sourcing, keeping, and providing a new home. Key factors influencing illegal purchases included convenient purchase channels, misguided cognition and motivations for pet keeping, and weak law enforcement. Effective interventions included messages focusing on shifting cognition and beliefs, increasing legal risk perception, and emphasizing stringent law enforcement, primarily delivered through online channels. Our results underscore the necessity for adaptable, audience-tailored interventions to reduce consumer demand for illegal wildlife products. The mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative and qualitative data, provided a comprehensive understanding of the target behavior and can inform the development of effective intervention strategies.

Rapid and Portable Presumptive Loop‐Mediated Isothermal Amplification Assays for the Detection of the Invasive Corn Snake (Pantherophis guttatus)

ABSTRACTThe exotic pet trade is a major pathway for the introduction, establishment, and spread of novel invasive alien species. Reptiles are common in the exotic pet trade and are prominent invasive alien vertebrate species that have dire impacts if allowed to establish. The North American corn snake (Pantherophis guttatus) is particularly common in the international pet trade and has been identified as a vertebrate pest priority species in Australia due to widespread climate suitability and prevalence in pre‐ and post‐border seizure records. Consequently, rapid, and presumptive post‐border biosecurity detection is essential to prevent its establishment and spread. Loop‐mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) is an emerging biosecurity tool that has shown promise for rapid detection of several high‐risk species. We developed two LAMP assays for the detection of P. guttatus, validated against: synthetic DNA; DNA extracted from snap‐frozen tissue, and shed skins; and then compared their performance for the detection of trace DNA collected from swabs of glass tanks post reptile presence. Our results include laboratory optimization and assessment of two mobile devices for in‐field integration (Franklin Real‐Time PCR Thermocycler, Biomeme, USA, and Genie III, Optigene, UK). The results indicate that LAMP is a viable biosecurity tool, with DNA detection possible for a range of sample types in a total of c.30 min, when including a rapid extraction step (8 min). Herein, we provide tools for rapid, presumptive detection of the North American corn snake from trace DNA samples in Australian biosecurity and wildlife compliance settings.

Identifying potential emerging invasive non‐native species from the freshwater pet trade

Abstract An increasingly globalised world has facilitated the movement of non‐native species (NNS) via the poorly regulated international pet trade. While focus is increasingly being placed on preventative action to combat invasive NNS—often cheaper and less difficult than the management of established populations—successful prevention requires controlling potential pathways and obtaining baseline knowledge of species' availability. Here we performed an in‐depth analysis of the freshwater pet trade as one major vector of NNS, compiling its species inventory and deriving threats of NNS release and establishment in the wild. With Germany as our study region, we surveyed pet stores, websites and the country's largest online classified portal, eBay Kleinanzeigen, recording the taxa encountered. For each species, we determined the likelihood of release based on availability and price (cheaper and/or more readily available species have been shown to be of greater risk), and the likelihood of establishment based on ecological niche breadth and niche overlap with environmental conditions in Germany. The survey revealed 669 species, of which 651 were non‐native to Germany. Looking at release likelihood, more readily available species in pet stores and on websites proved to be cheaper. For websites, there was a significant effect of occurrence status (i.e. released, not released, native) on price, with released and native species being significantly cheaper. Species previously released in Germany and elsewhere demonstrated greater niche breadths and greater niche overlaps between their source regions and Germany; and for species released in Germany, there was a significantly positive relationship between the magnitude of niche overlap and the number of documented occurrences. Finally, we combined our release and establishment likelihood findings under ‘Release Risk’ metrics to highlight the species most worthy of prioritisation. We propose these metrics as proactive methods for screening species in the trade, which can inform future policy direction and intervention. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Multiple introductions and human-aided dispersal of the UK’s most widespread non-native amphibian

The alpine newt Ichthyosaura alpestris has achieved a widespread distribution as a non-native (alien) species in Britain since its initial introduction over a century ago, but the patterns of its release and subsequent dispersal have never yet been collectively analysed. We employed a multi-disciplinary combination of methods, using geographic profiling to estimate the likely number and locations of introductions, and mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms to investigate the likely geographic source of primary introductions, including the potential role of the pet trade. In parallel we used population genetic analysis and coalescence-based modelling to infer the demographics and directionality of dispersal from founding populations. Our results show that alpine newts have been released at multiple sites. We found a close resemblance between patterns of mtDNA haplotypes in the pet trade and those of established alpine newt populations, suggesting a relationship between trade, releases, and dispersal. Results from demographic modelling using Approximate Bayesian Computation are also consistent with multiple independent introductions with limited local dispersal, and additionally suggest that releases may occur from intermediate sources, such as captive populations. Our results support the hypothesis that deliberate human activity is largely responsible for both introductions of alpine newts into the UK and their wider dispersal post-introduction. The likely involvement of the international pet trade highlights the risk that ongoing releases of I. alpestris may expose native species to pathogens, whether pre-existing or novel.

Mycotic Diseases in Chelonians.

Turtles and 'tortoises' populations are declining in number, the factors driving extinction risks being related to habitat loss and degradation, climate change, introduction of invasive plant and animal species, consumption by humans for food and medicinal use, and collection for international pet trade. Fungal infections represent one of the main threats for ecosystem health. The present narrative review deals with conventional and emerging mycoses of Chelonians. Although conventional mycoses in captive and pet reptiles would depend on poor husbandry, being the agents mostly opportunistic pathogens, some fungal species were reported to occur more frequently, such as the entomopathogen Purpureocillium lilacinum. Furthermore, emerging agents such as the Fusarium solani species complex have been recognized as a real threat for the surviving of some aquatic species, acting as primary pathogens. This complex has been recently included within pathogens in One Health issues. Emydomyces testavorans is recognized as an emerging threat, although, due its recent identification, information about its epidemiology is limited. Data about treatments and outcomes of mycoses in Chelonians are also referred.

More than we bargained for: Zebra mussels transported amongst European native freshwater snails

The international pet trade is a major driver of non-native species spread, including species both sold in the trade, and organisms incidentally transported alongside. Here, we document the discovery of invasive zebra mussels, Dreissena polymorpha, in Germany, transported alongside a commonly traded garden pond snail and European native, Viviparus viviparus, ordered from a German pet website. We highlight that the trade poses yet another way in which zebra mussels and other invasive species can expand their invaded range into novel ecosystems. We call for stricter biosecurity enforcement towards sellers, and encourage raising awareness amongst customers to inhibit the further spread of invasive species through the pet trade.

Nomenclature in the online reptile trade

AbstractThe internet has expanded opportunities for wildlife traders to conduct business globally, but monitoring this activity is often challenging. As monitoring techniques frequently employ language-based searches for particular words, it is important to understand the language traders use, particularly the nomenclature used to refer to traded species. We recorded advert data from four UK websites, focusing on reptiles, which constitute a large proportion of the international pet trade. We analysed whether the language types used by advertisers to refer to individual reptiles were associated with certain trader characteristics. We found English common names were the most frequent name type used to refer to species, regardless of the geographical location of the seller and the CITES Appendix listing of the species. However, scientific names were recorded in twice as many adverts for threatened and Near Threatened species as in adverts for non-threatened species, and only scientific names were used for three families: Anguidae, Pseudaspididae and Sphaerodactylidae. These findings could inform the creation of tailored keyword detection tools, which must account for the numerous language types in use within online wildlife trade communities. Future studies should examine the nuances of language used by other online wildlife trader communities in other contexts, such as different online platforms or different languages. The ultimate aim of these language detection tools will be to track in detail trends in the online reptile trade, offering a better understanding of potentially unsustainable trade patterns and helping authorities to enforce laws against illegal online reptile trade.

Ecological niche overlap of two allopatric karst-adapted tiger geckos (Goniurosaurus) from northern Vietnam: microhabitat use and implications for conservation

ABSTRACT Anthropogenic pressures have caused a substantial decline of global biodiversity and have been further reported to strongly affect the ecological performance of species in their habitat, especially reptiles. Understanding the ecology of species and how species respond to habitat alterations is basic knowledge needed to develop conservation programmes and address issues of biodiversity loss. All five species of tiger geckos (Goniurosaurus) in Vietnam are known to be threatened by extinction due to anthropogenic impacts such as habitat degradation and harvesting for the international pet trade. However, conservation actions have only been initiated for the better-studied species. This study provides detailed basic data on microhabitat use of two allopatric sister species, namely Goniurosaurus huuliensis and G. luii. In total, 145 geckos (including 59 records of G. huuliensis and 86 records of G. luii) were observed during field surveys. All Goniurosaurus individuals were mostly recorded in the forest on karst formations, covered with evergreen broad-leaved woody trees, intermixed with ferns, shrubs and vines. Microhabitats of the two species were relatively similar in other traits, such as high vegetation coverage, high humidity, stable ambient temperature and dry-rock substrates. A multiple factor analysis supported that the ecological niche spaces of the two species highly overlap, even though their distribution ranges are geographically separated. We further found no intraspecific niche segregation in both species. The present data provide baseline knowledge for both in situ and ex situ conservation measures to protect species in the genus Goniurosaurus.

Forensic Genetic Analyses of Melanistic Iguanas Highlight the Need to Monitor the Iguanid Trade.

Simple SummaryThe illegal pet trade remains an ongoing, substantial threat to wild populations, especially small insular populations, and can even lead to extinction. Fraudulent activity within the global reptile trade is known to occur, but its identification through forensic applications depends on knowledge of diversity within wild populations. In this study, we assessed the geographic origin of melanistic iguanas (Iguana iguana), which are only found in nations that have never authorized legal export of live animals. Analysis of genetic data from two pet iguanas in the USA flag these as originating from Saba or Montserrat, from which no export permits have ever been issued, confirming their illegal origin. Despite the international trade in I. iguana, in which tens- if not hundreds of thousands of specimens are traded each year, only a handful of individuals have been genetically assessed. Our work highlights the utility of applying forensic genetic techniques to this trade in order to track and discourage illegal activity.Lizards within the Iguana iguana species complex are among the most common reptilian pets, with the widest natural geographic range among iguanids. Deep phylogenetic divergence distinguishes multiple mitochondrial clades, and several taxonomic changes have recently been proposed. These small populations, typically island endemics, are threatened by numerous factors, including the international pet trade. Recent investigations reveal the absence of required CITES permits for lawful export of animals, providing evidence of ongoing illegal trade. Additional monitoring of trade in iguanas can be achieved through the application of forensic molecular techniques. In this study, two captive melanistic iguanas were genotyped for molecular markers for which geographic distributions of alleles have been established. Mitochondrial sequencing indicates that both animals carry a haplotype known to originate from the islands of Saba and Montserrat, populations taxonomically proposed to be Iguana melanoderma. Genotypes at 15 microsatellite loci are equally consistent with this origin, given the results of a principal component analysis. This first forensic genetic assessment within the extensive I. iguana pet trade highlights the presence of illegal activity. The need for additional forensic assessments of pet-trade iguanas is evident, especially given that their value is driven by variety and rarity, which is further intensified by recent taxonomic changes.

Novel chytrid pathogen variants and the global amphibian pet trade.

Global wildlife trade spreads emerging infectious diseases that threaten biodiversity. The amphibian chytrid pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) has caused population declines and species extinctions worldwide except in Asia. Fire-bellied toads (Bombina orientalis), exported in large numbers from Asia, are tolerant of Bd and carry hypervirulent ancestral chytrid BdAsia-1 variants. We assayed the virulence of a new isolate of BdAsia-1 on the model Australasian frog host Litoria caerulea. Infected individuals (n = 15) all showed rapid disease progression culminating in death, whereas sham-inoculated individuals (n = 10) presented no clinical signs of disease and all survived (log rank test, χ2 = 15.6, df = 1, p < 0.0001). The virulence of the new isolate of BdAsia-1 is comparable tothe one we assayed previously (χ2 = 0.0, df = 1, p = 0.91). Internationally traded wildlife, even when they appear healthy, can carry hypervirulent variants of pathogens. Once new pathogen variants escape into the environment, native species that have had no opportunity to evolve resistance to them may perish. Our study suggests that hypervirulent pathogens are being spread by the international pet trade. Notifiable wildlife diseases attributable to locally endemic pathogens often fail to generate conservation concern so are rarely subject to border surveillance or import controls. Because of the danger novel variants pose, national border control agencies need to implement disease screening and quarantine protocols to ensure the safety of their endemic fauna.

Living under the risk of extinction: population status and conservation needs assessment of a micro–endemic tiger gecko in Vietnam

Human impact is considered the major threat to the global decline of biodiversity, especially for threatened endemic species in karst ecosystems. Studies assessing a species' demography based on temporal and spatial indicators of population size, density and structure are expected to evaluate the level of impact of threats and are therefore becoming increasingly important for species conservation efforts. Goniurosaurus huuliensis, an endemic species in Vietnam, is one of the most threatened reptiles in the world. This karst–adapted species is classified by the IUCN Red List as Critically Endangered and listed under CITES Appendix II due to habitat loss and over–exploitation for the international pet trade. Here we provide the first evaluation of the population status of G. huuliensis. We applied a 'capture mark–recapture' method to estimate the population size and identify the population density and structure. The total population size was estimated to comprise a maximum of 1,447 individuals in integrated suitable habitats, possibly reaching up to 2,855 individuals exclusively in karst habitats within the total extension of occurrence. This is exceedingly lower than the threshold for a minimum viable population. Furthermore, G. huuliensis is documented to occur in extremely small mean population densities of only 6.4 indiv./km and 2.5 indiv./km/day along the surveyed transects. Based on the demographic information, the ongoing severe human impact (e.g. wildlife exploitation and limestone quarrying) is driving G. huuliensis to the brink of extinction. In situ conservation measures are therefore urgently required. We recommend that in-situ actions should be increased, and a plan should be developed to establish a species and habitat conservation area for G. huuliensis.

Threats at home? Assessing the potential ecological impacts and risks of commonly traded pet fishes

Invasive alien species (IAS) are major drivers of global biodiversity loss, and the poorly regulated international pet trade is a source of emerging and future invaders. Predictions of the likely ecological impacts and risks of such IAS have been significantly enhanced in recent years with new metrics, which require application to many more actual and potential IAS. Hence, this study assesses the potential ecological impacts and risks of two readily available pet trade species: goldfish, Carassius auratus, a species with non-native populations worldwide; and white cloud mountain minnow, Tanichthys albonubes, a species with a limited invasion history to date. First, we compared the per capita feeding rates of these non-native species with two European trophically analogous natives – the stone loach, Barbatula barbatula, and the common minnow, Phoxinus phoxinus – using the Comparative Functional Response method. Second, we used foraging experiments in conspecific pairs to determine synergistic, neutral or antagonistic intraspecific interactions. Third, we performed novel object experiments using the two pet trade species to assess boldness, a known “dispersal enhancing trait”. Goldfish had the highest maximum feeding rates of the four species, while white cloud mountain minnows had the lowest. Neutral interactions were observed for all four species in the paired foraging experiments, with goldfish having the highest consumption and white cloud mountain minnows having the lowest. Goldfish demonstrated greater boldness, being more active during the experimental trials and more likely to approach a novel object than white cloud mountain minnows. Further, combining maximum feeding rates, boldness and species availabilities from our survey of pet shops, we assessed the relative invasion risks (RIR) of the two non-natives. This highlighted goldfish as the higher risk and most worthy of management prioritisation, mirroring its more extensive invasion history. We propose that such metrics have potential to direct future IAS policy decisions and management towards the ever-increasing rates of biological invasions worldwide.

Unwanted ‘hitchhikers’ of ornamental snails: a case report of digeneans transported via the international pet trade

In the European Union, aquarium pets are organisms intended for closed places (e.g., pet shops, garden ponds, home aquariums). Until April 2021, regulations did not require veterinary inspection of these animals within the EU, although there is a potential risk of such organisms being released into the environment along with their symbiotes or parasites. Currently, a “disease-free” declaration is required, but no aquarium snail pathogen that needs attention in international trade has been included in the list of potential hazards. Here, we intended to check whether molluscs from the pet trade could be a source of parasites. We answered this question by using Anentome helena, a popular commodity in the ornamental pet industry, as a research model. Snail specimens were randomly collected from aquarium pet stocks imported from Bangkok (Thailand) to Warsaw (Poland) in March 2020. In total, three specimens were subjected to histological examination and 27 specimens were autopsied. Histological analysis revealed that one snail was infected with rediae (and the cercariae inside them). Our study is the first to show the presence of digenean larvae in A. helena originating from the ornamental pet industry. The spread of such “hitchhikers” in non-native areas will likely be associated with threats to environmental and public health. Therefore, it is necessary to constantly draw public attention to the possible consequences of releasing ornamental pets into the non-native environment.

Matamatas Chelus spp. (Testudines, Chelidae) have a remarkable evolutionary history of sex chromosomes with a long-term stable XY microchromosome system

The genus Chelus, commonly known as Matamata is one of the most emblematic and remarkable species among the Neotropical chelids. It is an Amazonian species with an extensive distribution throughout Negro/Orinoco and Amazonas River basins. Currently, two species are formally recognized: Chelus orinocensis and Chelus fimbriata and although it is still classified as "Least Concern" in the IUCN, the Matamatas are very appreciated and illegally sold in the international pet trade. Regardless, little is known regarding many aspects of its natural history. Chromosomal features for Chelus, for instance, are meagre and practically restricted to the description of the diploid number (2n = 50) for Chelus fimbriata, and its sex determining strategies are yet to be fully investigated. Here, we examined the karyotype of Chelus fimbriata and the newly described Chelus orinocensis, applying an extensive conventional and molecular cytogenetic approach. This allowed us to identify a genetic sex determining mechanism with a micro XY sex chromosome system in both species, a system that was likely present in their most common recent ancestor Chelus colombiana. Furthermore, the XY system found in Chelus orinocensis and Chelus fimbriata, as seen in other chelid species, recruited several repeat motifs, possibly prior to the split of South America and Australasian lineages, indicating that such system indeed dates back to the earliest lineages of Chelid species.

Urgent International Action Needed to Tackle Illegal Pet Trade in Caribbean Iguana Populations

Lizards in the Neotropical genus Iguana are heavily traded for the international pet trade, with unusual colour morphs and rare species commanding high prices. Recent research aimed to understand the taxonomy and phenotypic variation of Iguana in the Lesser Antilles, with those populations now severely threatened by this trade. Although the entire Iguana genus has been on the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Appendix II since 1977, current levels of trade regulation are proving to be inadequate for the Caribbean Iguana populations, which are declining. This paper presents the case for immediately halting regional commercial trade to safeguard the most vulnerable island populations. We further provide recommendations for trade regulations of other species complexes where the nomenclature used in legislation and the trade industry fall temporarily out of step with new taxonomic changes.

Molecular phylogenetic analyses and ecological niche modeling provide new insights into threats to the endangered Crocodile Lizard (Shinisaurus crocodilurus)

The endangered crocodile lizard, Shinisaurus crocodilurus, is seriously imperiled by anthropogenic threats, including habitat loss and degradation and most critically over-collection for the international pet trade. As a result, population sizes of crocodile lizards have sharply declined throughout their range, with only a small number remaining in China and a handful of individuals left in Vietnam. To prioritize conservation measures for the species, in this study, we generate new mitochondrial sequences of important new samples and analyze them with existing data. Our results confirm a new genetically distinct population in China, highlighting cryptic genetic diversity within the species. The assessment of climate change impacts on the species suggests that the suitable habitat of one population in China will become severely fragmented, decreased in size, and shifted, while the habitat of two other Chinese populations will remain stable and may even expand given future climate scenarios. In Vietnam, Yen Tu Mountain Range is predicted to serve as a refuge in different climate change projections, but suitable habitat in the border area between Vietnam and China will likely shift geographically. Based on our results, we recommend further field surveys to locate the natural distribution range of the newly identified molecular clade in China and determine the distribution extension of the Vietnamese population in the border area, especially potential occurrence on the Chinese side. Considering the impacts of climate change on the Vietnamese population, designing a corridor to connect the subpopulation’s habitat in the border area with nature reserves in Yen Tu Mountain Range and/or translocating lizards from the site to more suitable habitats might help secure the subpopulation in the context of climate change. In all recommended conservation measures, close collaboration between Vietnam and China will be crucial to effectively protect this potentially shared subpopulation of the highly threatened species.

A novel approach of using shed skins of the green tree python, Morelia viridis, for forensic purposes

Green tree python (Morelia viridis, Schlegel 1872) is a highly sought-after Indonesian/Papuan NG/Australian species in terms of the international trade in reptile pets. As the trade in wild animals is mostly prohibited nowadays, captive breeding supplies the international pet trade. There is evidence that captive breeding might be used as a cover for specimen’s illegally sourced from the wild, as there are very few possibilities of distinguishing wild from captive-bred animals. These rely on invasive sampling (cutting off the end of the tail in order to obtain a sample of blood/muscle/bone tissues) or presence of ecto- and/or endoparasites (method overcome by breeders housing animals in semi wild conditions). Therefore, we examined the possibility of using stable isotope analysis for determining: either the place of origin or diet as a means of defining whether they are captive bred or illegally sourced from the wild. We also review the use of non-invasive samples of shed (moulted) skins. We conclude that shed skins that are currently not used for identifying the source of green tree python could be used as forensic evidence, subject to the development of a viable method.

The hunt for the Blue tree monitor on Batanta Island, Indonesia: Subsistence on a treasure?

The tree monitors, Varanus (Hapturosaurus) are highly valued in international pet trade. These lizards are somewhat striking in their colouration, among which is the Blue tree monitor, Varanus macraei. Body colouration of this species is dominantly blue, which is unique to this monitor lizard species. This distinctive colouration together with its limited distribution has put the species as high-priced export commodity for at least 20 years. Because the lizard is endemic to Batanta Island and the nearby islets in the Raja Ampat Islands, Indonesia, we made a trip to the islands in 2019. We visited the village of Amdui on Batanta, where we made several casual interviews with hunters. Here we report results of our interviews and brief survey on the habitats of V. macraei, in order to identify the roles of local hunters in the trade of tree monitors for international pet markets. Some residents of Amdui have been in search for Blue tree monitors and other monitor lizard species since mid1990s and continue their hunt until very recently for fast cash. Because hunting is yet a large part of their culture more than farming, villagers rely on this method for subsistence. We recommend a socio-cultural approach to inform hunters on the idea of sustainability of harvest, for which a stable livelihood will be a possible consequence.