International Monitoring Programmes Research Articles

Introduction to special section: Permafrost and Seasonally Frozen Ground Under a Changing Climate

] Frozen ground has become a hot topic. Only twodecades ago, the subject was a relatively isolated field,largely without coordinated international monitoring pro-grams, measurement protocols, or comprehensive datacompilations [see Barry, 1988]. Concerns about globalwarming and rapid internationalization have changed theface of permafrost science over the intervening years.Today, national and international monitoring programs areflourishing, permafrost studies are an integral component ofthe International Polar Year 2007–2009, frozen ground isfeatured prominently in the reports of the Arctic ClimateImpacts Assessment and the Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change, and the Frozen Ground Data Center(http://nsidc.org/fgdc) in Colorado regularly receives con-tributions from around the world. Recognition of the im-portance of the ‘‘state and fate’’ of frozen ground extendswell outside the scientific community, as evidenced bywidespread attention in popular media.[

Geochronology of anthropogenic contaminants in a dated sediment core of the Rhine River (Germany): emission sources and risk assessment

AbstractA subaquatic sediment core was taken from the Rhine River to determine substance specific concentration profiles in correlation to time and depth. Based on these data emission histories were related for selected contaminants. Significant emission sources and emission pathways were compiled. In correlation to investigations of national and international monitoring programmes a significant reduction of environmental emissions up to a tenth of previous values were found since 1998. Some selected compounds, discharged by municipal and industrial activities, for example disinfectants (methyltriclosan), flame retardants (tris(chloropropyl)phosphate), chlorinated benzenes, anilines and naphthalenes, can be classified as significant synthetic substances in the scope of the Water Framework Directive. Because of their chemical characters, their persistence, bioaccumulation and ecotoxicity, as well as their occurrence within the sediment core, these compounds create a significant potential risk for water quality, but a reduction of these synthetic compounds to zero cannot be expected for the next future. In summary, this study provides a comprehensive reconstruction of the pollution history of anthropogenic contaminants, their fate and behaviour in the fluvial system. In addition, an estimation of the time period required for environmental measurements and monitoring programmes to improve, achieve and save a good status of the river systems are given.

Regional scale evidence for improvements in surface water chemistry 1990–2001

The main aim of the international UNECE monitoring program ICP Waters under the Convention of Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP) is to assess, on a regional basis, the degree and geographical extent of the impact of atmospheric pollution, in particular acidification, on surface waters. Regional trends are calculated for 12 geographical regions in Europe and North America, comprising 189 surface waters sites. From 1990–2001 sulphate concentrations decreased in all but one of the investigated regions. Nitrate increased in only one region, and decreased in three North American regions. Improvements in alkalinity and pH are widely observed. Results from the ICP Waters programme clearly show widespread improvement in surface water acid-base chemistry, in response to emissions controls programs and decreasing acidic deposition. Limited site-specific biological data suggest that continued improvement in the chemical status of acid-sensitive lakes and streams will lead to biological recovery in the future.

A summary of boron surface water quality data throughout the European Union

The distribution of boron in rivers across European Union countries is described. The data have been collected from national and international monitoring programmes. The data show a wide range of concentrations but only in a few instances do concentrations exceed environmental quality standards. Although there is a good body of data for the analysis presented here, it is clear that there is not a full coverage of environments and for some studies there is a clear bias towards sampling of the main rivers or specific rivers where there are environmental concerns. The variations in concentration link directly to pollutant sources although assessment of the details of the spatial variations is clouded by factors such as the location of monitoring points in relation to pollutant discharges, the variation in dilution potential of the various rivers and contrasting hydrological and geological environments. The data are presented to complement more detailed studies on particular river basins as a basis for the further development of regional environmental impact water quality modelling frameworks and within the newly developing field of typological settings.

Assessment of some innate immune responses in dab ( Limanda limanda L.) from the North Sea as part of an integrated biological effects monitoring

The marine flatfish dab (Limanda limanda), which lives in direct contact with contaminated sediments, is frequently used as a sentinel species in international monitoring programmes on the biological effects of contaminants. In this study, immune responses were recorded as indicators of sublethal chronic effects of contaminants, in addition to measurement of the induction of mono-oxygenase ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) in liver cells, the inhibition of acetylcholin esterase (AChE) in muscle and a quantification of grossly visible diseases and parasites. In total, 336 dab were analysed from five sampling areas in the North Sea, including the German Bight, the Dogger Bank, the Firth of Forth, and two locations close to oil and gas platforms (Ekofisk and Danfield). When considering plasma lysozyme levels, pinocytosis and respiratory burst activity of head kidney leucocytes, a clear gradient could be observed with decreased levels in individuals collected from the Firth of Forth and locations near the oil or gas platforms compared with dab from the Dogger Bank or the German Bight. Individuals with induced EROD activity displayed reduced lysozyme and respiratory burst activities. Lysozyme levels were also reduced in dab with lymphocystis or with nematodes. The data obtained indicate that the assessment of innate immune parameters in a monitoring programme provides supplementary information about immunomodulatory effects associated with the exposure of fish to contaminants. In particular, concentrations of plasma lysozyme, which can be analysed in an easy and inexpensive assay, are considered to be an appropriate parameter for use in a battery of other bioindicators.

Historical overview of atmospheric nuclear weapons testing and estimates of fallout in the continental United States.

From 1945 to 1980, over 500 weapons tests were conducted in the atmosphere at a number of locations around the world. These tests resulted in the release of substantial quantities of radioactive debris to the environment. Local, intermediate, and global fallout deposition densities downwind from test sites depended on the heights of bursts, the yields, and the half-lives and volatilities of the particular fission or activation products, as well as on the meteorological conditions. A number of national and international monitoring programs were established to trace the fallout through the atmosphere and biosphere. These programs included continuous monitoring of ground-level air, exposure rates, and deposition as well as periodic sampling of food, bone, water, soil, and stratospheric air. Although data for specific high-yield tests are still classified, the fission and fusion yields of the various tests and test series have been estimated and from this information the quantities of specific fission and activation products released into the atmosphere have been determined. The geographic and temporal variations in the fallout deposition of specific radionuclides based on both actual measurements and model calculations are discussed in this paper. A feasibility study to estimate the deposition density (deposition per unit area) of particular radionuclides from both Nevada Test Site and "global" fallout on a county-by-county scale for the continental United States is described. These deposition estimates provide a basis for reconstructing population exposure and dose. They support the feasibility of a more detailed evaluation of the population doses that resulted from fallout from atmospheric tests to document the experience fully and to report results more systematically and completely to the world community. The impact of weapons fallout will continue to be felt for years to come since a contaminant baseline has been imposed on the ambient radiation environment that will be an important factor in the assessment of past and future releases of radioactive materials into the biosphere.

Quality assurance of imposex and intersex measurements in marine snails.

Collaboration between the QUASIMEME and BEQUALM projects has proved to be an effective mechanism to further the development of quality assurance procedures for the measurement of the biological effects of tributyltin (imposex and intersex) to meet the requirements of international and national marine monitoring programmes. The data arising from the Laboratory Performance Studies are demonstrating the level of agreement between laboratories, suggesting factors leading to differences between laboratories, and guiding the development of QA procedures.

Assessment and monitoring of ecosystem health in the sea: A description of the Swedish monitoring system for coastal marine areas

Abstract Swedish coastal waters range in salinity from 0 psu (practical salinity units = o/oo) in the Bothnian Bay, which is part of the Baltic Sea, to 35 psu in the Skagerrak, which belongs to the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Natural variations in ambient conditions include weather and climate due to latitudinal, seasonal and annual variations. Anthropogenic inputs of pollutants originate from local point sources and diffuse and distant sources. These inputs may cause local and regional as well as national and international problems. Therefore, local and regional monitoring programs are integrated into the Swedish national monitoring program, which is also co-coordinated with other national and international monitoring programs. The aim of this paper is to describe and assess the Swedish monitoring system for the marine and coastal environment and to discuss its strengths and weaknesses. The monitoring system incorporates a combination of chemical-physical and biological parameters. Measured parameters are accompanied with specific quality criteria. In most cases the criteria are based on an estimate of a ‘natural state’ and the appraisals are expressed on a scale of 1-5 (high, good, fair, poor and bad quality). Three major threats to the marine environment are eutrophication, toxic organic pollutants/metals and physical disturbance (exploitation of the coast). The parameters used to assess eutrophication are concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus and silica, Secchi depth, concentration of chlorophyll, benthic fauna and macrovegetation. Metals and toxic organic pollutants are assessed based on their concentrations in sediment and selected organisms. The assessment of the degree of physical disturbance of coasts and seas is based on the number of buildings along the shoreline, physical disturbance along the shoreline, proportion of exploited/disturbed coastal water zones and jetty length. Other threats, which are also briefly discussed in this paper, are impact from the fishery and the potential toxic impact of contaminants, which are not being measured.

Gulfwatch: Monitoring Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Trace Metal and Organic Contaminants in the Gulf of Maine (1991–1997) with the Blue Mussel, Mytilus edulis L

Gulfwatch, established in 1991, is an international contaminant monitoring program in which the blue mussel, Mytilus edulis, is used as an indicator of the level and extent of contamination in the Gulf of Maine. Since 1991, trace metals, PAHs, PCBs, and OC pesticides have been measured in mussel tissues at 56 sites. The distribution of most metals was relatively uniform throughout the Gulf with the exception of Ag, Pb and Cr. However, the concentration of organic contaminants increased in a north-to-south direction. High concentrations of contaminants were correlated with large human population density and proximity to large rivers. Temporal analysis of five sites revealed that the majority of contaminant concentrations were either unchanged or decreasing. The concentrations of most contaminants were lower than the median of the National Status and Trends (NS & T) Mussel Watch with the exceptions of Cr, Hg, Pb and ∑PCB 24. Hg concentrations at >80% of the Gulfwatch sites exceeded the NS & T median + 1 SD. Gulfwatch continues as a primary contaminant monitoring program in the Gulf of Maine.

The analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in marine samples

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) have been determined in marine samples for many years, but have only rarely been included in either national or international monitoring programmes. PAH can arise in the environment from natural sources, oil and petroleum products and combustion processes. Although oil spills influence PAH concentrations in local areas, the major sources of PAH are anthropogenic and derived from land-based combustion sources. PAH are globally distributed, and the highest concentrations generally occur close to urban centres. In this paper, we review those aspects relating to the analysis and monitoring of PAH in marine areas. The aim is to provide an overview of current knowledge, so as to assess the need for future monitoring of PAH and the present capability for their analysis. Further monitoring of PAH is justified because of their ubiquity in the environment, their persistence and bioaccumulative properties, and their potential for toxicity both to aquatic organisms and human consumers.

Determination of (mono-, di- and) tributyltin in sediments. Analytical methods

Methods for the reliable determination of butyltin compounds in sediments are required for both national and international marine monitoring programmes. This evaluation of current commonly used approaches to the analysis identifies critical aspects of extraction, derivatisation, clean-up, separation, standardisation and detection with the objective of improving the analytical capabilities both of experienced laboratories and of those addressing the problems for the first time.

The African Waterfowl Census: review and development of an international monitoring programme

Dodman, T. 2000. The African Waterfowl Census: review and development of an international monitoring programme. Ostrich 71 (1 &2):95. The African Waterfowl Census (AFWC) is now in its sixth year of operation as a coordinated wetland monitoring programme for sub-Saharan Africa. A comprehensive review of the AFWC took place in 1995 and 1996, including a widely-circulated questionnaire and a special meeting in Senegal. The results from this review process are being used to develop the programme as a lasting tool for wetland conservation and management in Africa. This paper summarises these results. The AFWC currently involves about 25 countries, which all submit data annually to enable waterbird numbers and distribution to be viewed at regional and international levels. On a national level, results are used variably for the identification and designation of Wetlands of International importance (Ramsar Sites), for standard wetland monitoring programmes, for wetland and species management actions and for setting hunting quotas. In some countries, large networks have already been established, comprising scientists, managers and local volunteers. Priorities for the future operation of the AFWC include: a) the establishment of a Steering Committee with representation from all regions; b) election of National Coordinators in all countries; c) national and regional training initiatives; d) a field guide to African waterbirds and basic monitoring exercises; e) involving local communities in basic monitoring exercises; and f) increasing the use of results, especially in support of the Bonn and Ramsar Conventions. The AFWC is uniquely placed to help countries meet obligations under the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) under the Bonn Convention. Increased collaboration and information exchange between National Coordinators and others will lead to a greater knowledge of wetland networks important for migratory waterbirds. This in turn will help in the identification of conservation priorities for particular species, for threatened wetlands that form vital components of migration networks and for threatened wetland habitats.

How accreditation changed Us

Today, laboratories involved in national or international marine monitoring programmes are strongly encouraged to seek accreditation or another formal proof of competence. The question often asked is whether a laboratory actually produces more reliable data when a quality system has been set up. A method of monitoring the differences in laboratory performance from year to year is presented in this paper. In the case of the SMHI Oceanographical Laboratory there has been substantial improvement in laboratory performance since formal quality assurance measures were introduced.

Contamination by persistent chemicals in food chain and human health

Persistent polluting chemicals are, by definition, substances which have long half-lives or disappearance rates in the environment, mainly due to their chemical stability, but often also caused by unfavourable conditions for environmental/biological mineralisation processes to take place. DDT, lindane, dieldrin, HCB, and PCB are well known examples of chemicals which can be found in various parts/compartments of the environment, and in living organisms including man.The early findings in 1950s and 1960s of the persistent chlorinated pesticides in birds and fish populations in North America and Europe were obviously the results of deliberate and extensive use of these chemicals in agriculture and industry. The findings were confirmed and substantiated by national and international monitoring programmes, and it became clear that many field observations of threatened species convincingly could be correlated to the increasing levels of contamination.Still more man-made chemicals have been drawn into the field of interests as widespread pollutants, and the geographical areas in which contamination takes place have become ever larger. The threat to groundwater ressources from infiltration of pesticides into soils, and the alarming reports on contamination of mothers milk are to-day well-known examples. They are described from many parts of the world. Similarly, the food chain biomagnification of several pesticides and of PCB which were already described from Great Lakes region in North America in the 1960s and from the Baltic Sea area in Europe in the 1970s has since then been followed by identical observations in the Danube basin in Eastern Europe and in Indian provinces during the 1980s.Scientifically, we are to-day able to describe many of the fundamental processes, including environmental transport and transformation, as well as exposure, uptake and metabolic patterns for many of the persistent man-made chemicals.Accordingly, we are reasonably well informed of the most obvious cause-effect chains which govern the process of increasing pollution. We understand and can often for most of the chemicals predict the hazards of the environment as well as to man. In spite of this experience, and contrary to belief created by our scientific knowledge, the problem of contamination is still increasing. This includes the frequency of reported accidents and damages from all over the world. It is obvious, therefore, that the question becomes a matter of concern for the global society and a call for world-wide attention through international bodies develops into a matter of urgency.

Monitoring acid waters in the U.K.: an overview of the U.K. Acid Waters Monitoring Network and summary of the first interpretative exercise

1. The U.K. Acid Waters Monitoring Network (AWMN) was established in 1988. It comprises eleven lake and eleven stream sites located throughout the U.K. in areas sensitive to acidification. The principal objective of the AWMN is to provide a long‐term, high‐quality chemical, biological and palaeolimnological record which, in conjunction with the U.K. precipitation monitoring networks, will facilitate the assessment of trends within U.K. surface waters.2. The first interpretation of results generated by the AWMN (April 1988–March 1993) has recently been completed and is summarized. During this period there have been no sustained changes in atmospheric deposition in the U.K. Trends are recognized in certain chemical and/or biological parameters at individual AWMN sites, but despite some (regional) patterns no regional trends toward increasing or decreasing acidification are apparent. The data comprise an excellent baseline with which future changes may be compared.3. The methodology of the AWMN is reviewed and some amendments are suggested in the light of the first 5 years experience. These include: additional determinations for nitrogen species and total phosphorus; changes to the frequency of macrophyte and palaeolimnological sampling; new emphasis on data generated by sediment traps at lake sites; and the addition of extra sites to address better the full extent of acid‐sensitive surface waters revealed by the national critical loads mapping programme, and to pay particular attention to the acidifying role of nitrogen.4. The contribution of AWMN data to other national and international environmental monitoring programmes is highlighted. In addition, AWMN sites provide data to develop and validate critical loads models and dynamic models of acidification, and could also be used to monitor the impact of other air pollutants such as trace metals and persistent organic compounds on the freshwater environment.

The 1994 QUASIMEME laboratory-performance studies: Chlorobiphenyls and organochlorine pesticides in fish and sediment

Two laboratory-performance studies have been undertaken to improve the measurement of chlorobiphenyls (CBs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in marine sediments and biota as part of the QUASIMEME (EU-Standards, Measurements and Testing) project's on-going Laboratory Testing Scheme. Forty and 38 laboratories, respectively, participated in the two exercises. A considerable improvement was obtained in the long-term precision of the participating laboratories. The between-laboratory variance for the determination of CBs and OCPs in the cod liver homogenate and dried sediment samples was, however, too high for the rather demanding requirements of international monitoring programmes. Detection of a 50% change in concentration of CBs is a minimum requirement for such programmes, whereas currently detection of a 100% change in concentration would maybe just be possible for some analyses in sediments and cod liver. Several individual laboratories performed, however, considerably better compared to the group performance. A number of improvements such as optimization of the temperature programme of the GC analysis, a larger sample intake and treatment of co-extracted interferences is recommended.

The current state of analytical control in Lithuania

In Lithuania research and development in chemical analysis are concentrated in scientific institutes and universities. The main fields of interest focus on biosensors, electrochemical sensors, sampling techniques and methods, study of atomization processes in spectrochemical analysis and noise evaluation in analytical measurements. Some laboratories also take part in international environmental monitoring programmes. There are about 50 researchers at the Ph.D. level engaged in analytical chemistry and several hundred technicians specialized in the field of analytical control. About one hundred chemical laboratories are active in scientific institutes, universities and factories. Specialized laboratories of chemical analysis are at the disposal of Environmental Control and Health Protection Departments and forensic investigation organizations. So far no laboratories are accredited according to the ISO 9000 norms. Special courses on analytical chemistry are offered at a few schools of higher education in the country. Only at the Department of Analytical Chemistry of the University of Vilnius specialized programmes are available to postgraduate students working towards a Ph.D. to improve their skills in current techniques of analytical chemistry. Recently the Technical Committee TC-16 for Chemical Analysis was formed within the standardization system of Lithuania. Its main activities are centered on issues such as national terminology, certified reference materials (CRMs), analytical methods and analytical quality assurance. There are numerous problems related to national terminology, the preparation of special documents in the field of analytical control and the production of regional environmental CRMs. Problems, also arise in obtaining and using CRMs for analytical instrument calibration and validation.

Proceedings of the Second Circumpolar Symposium on Remote Sensing of Arctic Environments, Tromsø, 4–6 May, 1992

Remote sensing of polar environments has received increased attention and interest in the last years. The role of the Arctic and the Antarctic in the global circulation system of air and water masses, the sensitive and fragile ecosystems that meet serious threats from pollution and other human impacts, and the huge amount of information about the past changing climates stored in the vast ice sheets and glaciers call for international management and monitoring programs.

The statistical power of monitoring programmes

The probability (power) of detecting changes in contaminant levels with time depends on both the pattern and magnitude of these changes. Contaminant monitoring programmes are more sensitive to some patterns of change than to others. This is demonstrated for an annual monitoring programme by computing the power for several simple environmental scenarios exhibiting different patterns of change in contaminant levels. The results are used to assess the changes that are likely to be detected in mercury concentrations in the muscle tissue of a number of fish species using data collected in an international monitoring programme.

Mercury in Baltic and North Sea waters

Improved determination methods for very low Hg concentrations in sea water using cold vapor AAS with pre-enrichment and purification on gold as well as a new sampling system (‘MERCOS’ PTFE water samplers) have been applied to extensive investigations for reactive and total Hg levels. The first research cruises concentrated on the southwestern Baltic Sea. Concentrations found in the surface water were around 2 ng L−1 Since 1979, Hg has been regularly monitored in the German Bight of the North Sea as a part of German and international monitoring programs. Two investigations have been performed in the lower course of the river Elbe, from Hamburg to the sea. Results show that the Elbe is the predominant ‘point source’ for Hg in the German Bight. In a large multidisciplinary research project ‘ZISCH’, a closely spaced station network has been sampled twice, in 1986 and 1987, to survey the entire North Sea, i.a. for Hg. Over most of the area, the median of Hg values in the surface water was 0.5 ng L−1; in a distinct field, however, extremely high levels were found, of more than 200 ng L−1.