International Mars Research Articles

Visibility analysis of Phobos to support a science and exploration platform

The surfaces of the Martian moons, Phobos and Deimos may offer a stable environment for long-term operation of platforms. We present a broad assessment of potential scientific investigations, as well as strategic and operational opportunities offered by long-term operation of an instrumented lander. Studies using observations of Mars’ moons, and the detailed new findings expected from the JAXA Martian Moons eXploration (MMX) mission, International Mars Sample Return (MSR) Campaign and other upcoming Mars missions, provide a driver for feasibility and trade studies for follow-on missions that would build on the knowledge gain from those missions. We discuss the scientific questions and operational objectives that may be pertinent for landed platforms on the martian moons, including (1) monitoring and scientific investigations of Mars’ surface and atmosphere, (2) scientific investigations of the martian moons, (3) monitoring and scientific investigations of the space environment, (4) data relay for Mars surface assets or interplanetary missions and 5) use in a Mars navigation/positioning system. We present results from visibility calculations performed using the SPICE observation geometry system for space science missions, and a Phobos shape model. We compute as a function of location on Phobos, visibility quantities that are most relevant to science and operational objectives. These include visibility from Phobos of the Sun, Earth, Mars surface and atmosphere, Deimos, and Jupiter. We also consider occultation events by the Mars atmosphere of Earth and Deimos that may provide opportunities for radio science. Calculations are performed for a study period spanning one Mars year in a hypothetical future operational scenario (1 Jan 2030–18 Nov 2031). We combine visibility metrics to identify locations on Phobos most suitable for long-term operation of a platform. We find the Mars-facing side of Phobos, and limited areas on the leading and trailing sides, satisfy the most requirements defined for Mars and Phobos science, space environment monitoring, and data relay/navigation. We demonstrate that compliance with requirements related to visibility of Mars and its atmosphere are not mutually exclusive with those that are better satisfied on Phobos’ anti-Mars side, such as those aided by maximizing their cumulative view factor to the ecliptic plane (i.e. visibility to the Sun, Earth or outer solar system). Finally, our methodology allows to assess the extent to which combined visibility metrics can meet mission requirements. The process we describe can be used to support landing site identification and selection on planets, moons and small bodies.Graphical

The evolution of scientific goals for Mars exploration and future prospects

Mars is currently in the spotlight of solar system exploration and planetary science study. The scientific questions of Mars are closely integrated with big enigmas of the solar system, highlighting the centrality of Mars in understanding the formation and evolution of our solar system. After nearly six decades of exploration, Mars is easily the most studied planet in the solar system besides Earth, with a profusion of research across space environment, atmosphere, surface-subsurface compositions, topography and structure, impact history, glaciers and cryosphere, climate change, and internal structure. Martian meteorite and laboratory simulation studies (experimental and numerical) are also developing rapidly. Key discoveries in the past 20 years include evidence of past and current aqueous activity, geological environment diversity, modern geological processes, methane emissions and preserved organics, atmospheric composition and evolution, current and recent climate change, gravity fields and surface radiation environments, etc. Such scientific achievements, underpinned by peer-reviewed research goals developed by the planetary community, in turn shape future goals and targets. We review how the Mars exploration goals and targets (e.g., life, climate, geology, preparation for human exploration) have evolved in the past 20 years, and show priorities and focii for future international Mars exploration. For example, the Mars exploration strategy evolved thematically from “follow the water” to “understand Mars as a system”, “understand the long-term evolution of habitability on Mars”, and “exploration by humans on Mars”. In the next 10−20 years, Mars exploration will further characterize the internal structure of Mars, start a new era of life detection, and return samples from Mars and its satellites. China’s first Mars mission will contribute to the international Mars science community with an orbiter and a rover exploring the northern lowlands with advanced payloads. New findings such as the structure of the Martian critical zone (i.e., vertical zone of interaction between the atmosphere and crust with immediate relevance for habitability), local and global characteristics of the residual crustal magnetism, volcanic-geothermal evolution and the cyclicity of glaciations will clarify the still poorly known provenance and evolution of the topographic dichotomy. Hypotheses such as the formation of the global dichotomy by an oblique impact or an ancient ocean-sustaining climate may be tested and constrained. Internationally planned sample-return from Mars and its satellites, combined with study of Martian meteorites, experimental and numerical simulation of Martian processes, and study of terrestrial analog sites and samples will build absolute geochronology of Mars and constrain the timing and duration of critical events, such as cessation of the global magnetic field, quiescence of volcanism across the Noachian-Hesperian temporal boundary, transition to a single-plate planet, aqueous and sedimentary processes, and global climate change.

The potential science and engineering value of samples delivered to Earth by Mars sample return

The potential science and engineering value of samples delivered to Earth by Mars sample return

The potential science and engineering value of samples delivered to Earth by Mars sample return

AbstractExecutive summary provided in lieu of abstract.

The ROVER Fluxgate Magnetometer

Martian magnetic field measurement is one of the focuses of international Mars exploration mission. China's first Mars magnetic measurement mission would carry magnetometers on the rover and the orbiter to achieve joint observation of the surface magnetic field and the spatial magnetic field. Dual tri-axial fluxgate magnetometer would be carried on the rover,which adopts Helmholtz compensation coil probe technology and all digital closed-loop feedback circuit technology to realize high precision same-point measurement of space magnetic field. Reliability, safety and space environment adaptability of the instrument are well considered in the design. According to ground calibration, the range of the ROVER fluxgate magnetometer is ±65 000 nT,the noise level is 0.01 nT/√Hz,and the resolution achieves 0.01 nT.

IMARS Phase 2A Draft Mission Architecture and Science Management Plan for the Return of Samples from Mars Phase 2 Report of the International Mars Architecture for the Return of Samples (iMARS) Working Group.

iMARS Phase 2A Draft Mission Architecture and Science Management Plan for the Return of Samples from Mars Phase 2 Report of the International Mars Architecture for the Return of Samples (iMARS) Working Group.

Mission overview and key technologies of the first Mars probe of China

The first Chinese Mars exploration will fulfill the goals of “orbiting, landing and roving” in one mission. This paper briefly describes the process of international Mars exploration and analyzes the development of Chinese Mars exploration. It focuses on introducing the scientific significance and engineering difficulties of Mars exploration, and provides an overview of the system design of the probe, including the flight profile, the preliminary selection of the landing site, the entry, descent and landing (also known as EDL) process. Four types of key technologies, including telecommunications, autonomous control, the EDL process, and its structure and mechanism, are detailed in this paper. Finally, the paper highlights the expected scientific and engineering results of the mission.

Sample Canister Capture Mechanism for Mars Sample Return: Functional and environmental test of the elegant breadboard model

The paper provides recent updates about the ESA study: Sample Canister Capture Mechanism Design and Breadboard developed under the Mars Robotic Exploration Preparation (MREP) program. The study is part of a set of feasibility studies aimed at identifying, analysing and developing technology concepts enabling the future international Mars Sample Return (MSR) mission. The MSR is a challenging mission with the purpose of sending a Lander to Mars, acquire samples from its surface/subsurface and bring them back to Earth for further, more in depth, analyses. In particular, the technology object of the Study is relevant to the Capture Mechanism that, mounted on the Orbiter, is in charge of capturing and securing the Sample Canister, or Orbiting Sample, accommodating the Martian soil samples, previously delivered in Martian orbit by the Mars Ascent Vehicle. An elegant breadboard of such a device was implemented and qualified under an ESA contract primed by OHB-CGS S.p.A. and supported by Politecnico di Milano, Department of Aerospace Science and Technology: in particular, functional tests were conducted at PoliMi-DAST and thermal and mechanical test campaigns occurred at Serms s.r.l. facility. The effectiveness of the breadboard design was demonstrated and the obtained results, together with the design challenges, issues and adopted solutions are critically presented in the paper. The breadboard was also tested on a parabolic flight to raise its Technology Readiness Level to 6; the microgravity experiment design, adopted solutions and results are presented as well in the paper.

Research on Trend about Domestic and International Mars Exploration in the Future

Research on Trend about Domestic and International Mars Exploration in the Future

Research on Trend about Domestic and International Mars Exploration

Research on Trend about Domestic and International Mars Exploration

Biological dosimetry in the ENEIDE Mission on the International Space Station

Space radiation represents one of the major health hazards to crews of interplanetary missions. As the duration of space flight increases, according to International Space Station (ISS) and Mars mission programs, the risk associated with exposure to ionizing radiation also increases. Although physical dosimetry is routinely performed in manned space missions, it is generally accepted that direct measurement of biological endpoints (biological dosimetry) is necessary for a precise assessment of radiation risk in extraterrestrial activities. Chromosomal aberrations (CAs) in peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLs) are particularly suitable to this purpose, as they can provide estimates of both equivalent radiation dose and risk. In this study, cytogenetic analysis was performed on PBL chromosomes of an Italian astronaut involved in two different 10-day missions on the ISS (Marco Polo, April 2002, and ENEIDE, May 2005). Blood samples were collected before and after flights. CAs were evaluated in either mitotic spreads or in prematurely condensed chromosomes (PCC) by Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization (FISH). In addition, blood samples were exposed to graded doses of X-rays in vitro before and after the flight and cytogenetic damage evaluated to investigate whether the space environment alters the sensitivity of human cells to ionizing radiation. The yield of baseline chromosomal aberrations was not modified following Marco Polo and ENEIDE mission. This is consistent with the low dose absorbed in these short-term space missions. Preliminary results from Marco Polo mission suggested a significant increase in intrinsic radiosensitivity of lymphocytes after landing compared to pre-flight and follow-up (6 months after landing) samples. However, this effect was not observed during the ENEIDE mission. The results suggest that intra-indi-vidual variations in radiosensitivity are significant, but they cannot be related to the space flight.

Proposal on application of Russian technical facilities for International Mars Research Program for 2009–2015

Recently International Mars Research Program is widely discussed. Well-known initiative of President of the USA, recent progress of American and European scientists and engineers in implementation of “Mars Odyssey” and “Mars-Express” projects and Russian proposals on cooperation and participation in “Phobos Sample Return” mission declare every intention to join efforts in the ambitious Martian Program realization. The final goal of the program for nearly 15–20 years is landing of a man on the Martian surface. Before this event happens another critical stage will be Martian soil sample return. Within the next 10 years, apparently, a major task will be scale research by means of various types of technical facilities. A crucial issue for this research will be creation of research station network which would allow collecting information about planetary conditions at far-remote points. By this time within the frame of “Phobos Sample Return Program” to be launched in 2009 it is planned to deliver some meteorological mini-landers developed by the Russian and Finnish specialists on the Martian surface. From this point view it is also interesting to use balloons capable to cover considerable distance. Such proposals have been made by Russian side for “Scout” mission. European “Aurora” program also anticipates application of wide range of technical means to explore the Martian atmosphere and surface including inflatable devices. Thus, for the International Mars Exploration Program, it seems to be very prospective to use apart from launch vehicles, upper stages etc. such technical means as mini-stations, Mars rovers, penetrators, balloons, etc.

The Mars exploration plans of ESA

In the framework of its Aurora Exploration Program, the European Space Agency (ESA) has initiated the ExoMars Project. Aside from searching for traces of life at and near the Martian surface, ExoMars aims to characterize the Martian geochemistry and water distribution at various locations, improve the knowledge of the Mars environment and geophysics, and identify possible hazards for future missions. Beyond the ExoMars Project, there is a strong scientific and technical interest in Europe to participate in an international Mars Sample Return (MSR) mission. ESA's overall approach to MSR includes a combination of system studies, technology development work, and the identification of capability development approaches including the consideration of demonstration missions. In the longer term, the approach intends to allow the strategic down-selection of specific areas in which Europe can play a strategic role in the eventual MSR mission.

Micro-Mars: A low-cost mission to planet Mars with scientific orbiter and lander applications

The proposed Micro-Mars mission can contribute substantially to the international Mars exploration programme within the framework of a future low-cost mission. The concept consists of an orbiter integrating a total scientific payload of 30 kg including a light-weight lander of 15 kg. The spacecraft will be launched as piggyback payload by an Ariane 5 ASAP with a total launch mass of 360 kg. It will use a bipropellant propulsion system with 210 kg of fuel and four thrusters of 22 N, and four of 10 N for orbit and attitude control. Further attitude actuation shall be performed by three reaction wheels and a gyropackage, a star sensor and a sun sensor for attitude sensing. Communication will be performed in S- and X-Band to Earth and in UHF between orbiter and lander. From a highly elliptical orbit with a periapsis below 200 km, four instruments will perform high-resolution remote sensing observations and the payload consists of a camera system, a magnetometer, a dosimeter, and an ultrastable oscillator for radio science. The light-weight micro lander is a challenging technological experiment by itself. It is equipped with a suite of scientific instruments which will supplement the orbiter measurements and concentrate on the environment (temperature cycle, atmosphere, magnetosphere, and radiation).

174 Experiences with MARS therapy in liver disease: analysis of 385 patients of the international MARS registry

174 Experiences with MARS therapy in liver disease: analysis of 385 patients of the international MARS registry

Mars network for enabling low-cost missions

Mars is the first planet where significant steps are being taken to establish a “virtual presence throughout the solar system”—one of NASA's strategic goals. Preparations are under way to begin implementation of an evolving Mars Network of satellites to meet the future communications and navigation challenges of the ongoing international Mars exploration campaign. The Mars Network concept is to deploy two classes of satellites. The first class is very low-cost MicroSats, launched piggyback on Ariane 5, for deployment in 800-km circular orbits in a variety of planes for frequent global contacts. From their low orbits, the MicroSats provide highly efficient relay communication links for small, energy constrained landers, and their orbital motion provides strong navigation signatures. The second, larger class of Mars areostationary satellites (MARSats) are deployed in 17,000-km orbits with 1-sol periods, as required, to support very high bandwidth users.

Standardized evaluation of 170 patients from the international MARS registry

Standardized evaluation of 170 patients from the international MARS registry

Mars 2001 : A Mars 96 recovery mission

The involvement of the European scientific community in Mars exploration has been unfortunately impaired by the recent Mars 96 mission failure. A rapid relaunch of the most essential components of the Mars 96 payload is however feasible, due to the availability of spare flight models of the Mars 96 payload instruments. This paper presents the preliminary study led by AEROSPATIALE ESPACE & DEFENSE under CNES supervision of a generic spacecraft which could conceivably be used for a Mars 96 recovery mission. The International Mars Exploration Working Group, during its meeting held December 3, 1996, has recommended to explore the possibilities to “implement at the earliest practical opportunity a recovery orbiter mission, based on scientific priorities and complementary to other approved missions, taking advantage of the existing hardware to the greatest extent possible ”. This is the framework of the mission presented here, which proposes to send 5 spare instruments (OMEGA, SPICAM, HRSC, PFS and WAOSS) of the Mars 96 mission for the Mars 2001 launch window. These complementary instruments have the capability to fully characterise the surface and neutral environment of Mars, to an extent that would allow the entire history of the planet to be described, from geological time scales to variations resulting from the diurnal cycle. The spacecraft concept has been established to reach a cost-effective solution, with a modular solution for flexibility in development activities and a significant growth potential, in order to comply with other future inter-planetary mission requirements. This 1000 Kg class satellite has been planned to operate during 1 Martian year, on a 300/10000 km elliptical orbit, providing more than 500 Mbit of scientific data per day.

Telescopic Observations of Mars, 1996–1997: Results of the Marswatch Program

During the 1996–1997 apparition of Mars, Marswatch and the International Mars Patrol (IMP) of the Mars Section of the Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers (ALPO) received 2750 observations from 70 observers in 14 countries. Approximately 40% of these observations are CCD images, many of which were obtained through filters covering a spectral range from 330 to 820 nm. In addition, a large number of high quality visual observations were performed through standard color filters, permitting more accurate assessments of surface and atmospheric phenomena. The apparition coverage extended through 249° (11° to 260°) of areocentric longitude (Ls), permitting monitoring of the northern hemisphere spring/summer/autumn meterological activity, north polar cap (NPC) behavior, and albedo feature alterations.There were few significant changes in albedo feature morphology during the 1996–1997 apparition. The north polar cap rift, the Rima Tenuis, which had been observed and imaged during each aphelic apparition since 1980, was not observed, perhaps due to a slowing in the NPC regression after 80°Ls. The incidence of discrete clouds, orographic and localized, was higher than that predicted on the basis of the ALPO/IMP's martian meteorology study that spanned 14 previous apparitions from 1964 to 1993. Discrete clouds were more numerous than in 1993 or 1995, peaking in late northern spring, 30°Lsearlier than predicted. The Syrtis Blue Cloud was extensively observed and imaged between 66° and 115°Ls. The rate of occurrence of limb clouds was significantly lower than predicted for a given subseason. Their peak incidence occurred after aphelion, but their frequency decreased rapidly after 105°Ls, nearly two martian seasons earlier than observed during previous apparitions. Limb hazes, bright in blue and ultraviolet light, were more numerous and conspicuous throughout the northern summer, as predicted from the meteorology study. Arctic clouds increased in number around aphelion and were often large and bright during early northern summer. A variable north polar hood was observed after 160°Ls. We find clear evidence for the existence of extensive equatorial cloud bands, which became numerous between 50° and 120°Ls, peaking in early northern summer (105°Ls), and often merging into bright limb clouds. These bands were more frequent and prominent in 1996–1997 than during the 1993 or 1995 apparitions and were extensively imaged in blue and ultraviolet light by both groundbased observers and by the HST.

An ionospheric sounder for the Mars landers

The planet Mars has been visited in the past by orbital probes and landers to study the atmosphere and the ground. But despite these numerous missions, more than 20 years ago, many parameters and phenomena are not known at this time. The large possibilities given by new technologies, in terms of weight and power consumption, allow the realization of new experiments at the surface of Mars. The aim is to propose the installation of a bottomside ionospheric sounder. This instrument will contribute to our scientific understanding of Mars. It will answer one of the main scientific objectives of the IMEWG (International Mars Exploration Working Group) mission scenario: the characterization of the Martian upper atmosphere and its interaction with the solar wind. Ionospheric sounding is a well-known technique at the surface of the Earth which has proven to be very useful for the study of the lower ionosphere. The principle is to transmit a radio pulse vertically and to measure the time which elapses before the echo is received. By varying the frequency of the pulse carrier wave, a plot can be obtained of echo delay versus frequency. It gives information about the propagation medium. The scientific objectives are described which can be achieved with such an experiment and the parameters which can be measured underlining the specificity of the Martian atmosphere are given. The theoretical scientific background of this sounder is briefly described and, finally, its feasibility is discussed.