International-level Athletes Research Articles

Does a single session of transcranial direct current stimulation enhance both physical and psychological performance in national- or international-level athletes? A systematic review.

Some studies showed that a single session of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has the potential of modulating motor performance in healthy and athletes. To our knowledge, previously published systematic reviews have neither comprehensively investigated the effects of tDCS on athletic performance in both physical and psychological parameters nor investigated the effects of tDCS on high-level athletes. We examined all available research testing a single session of tDCS on strength, endurance, sport-specific performance, emotional states and cognitive performance for better application in competition and pre-competition trainings of national- or international-level athletes. A systematic search was conducted in PubMed, Web of Science, EBSCO, Embase, and Scopus up until to June 2023. Studies were eligible when participants had sports experience at a minimum of state and national level competitions, underwent a single session of tDCS without additional interventions, and received either sham tDCS or no interventions in the control groups. A total of 20 experimental studies (224 participants) were included from 18 articles. The results showed that a single tDCS session improved both physical and psychological parameters in 12 out of the 18 studies. Of these, six refer to the application of tDCS on the motor system (motor cortex, premotor cortex, cerebellum), five on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and two on temporal cortex. The most sensitive to tDCS are strength, endurance, and emotional states, improved in 67%, 75%, and 75% of studies, respectively. Less than half of the studies showed improvement in sport-specific tasks (40%) and cognitive performance (33%). We suggest that tDCS is an effective tool that can be applied to competition and pre-competition training to improve athletic performance in national- or international-level athletes. Further research would explore various parameters (type of sports, brain regions, stimulation protocol, athlete level, and test tasks) and neural mechanistic studies in improving efficacy of tDCS interventions. Systematic Review Registration: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?ID=CRD42022326989, identifier CRD42022326989.

Can the Countermovement Jump or Squat Jump predict the kinematic performance of the rear Bandal Chagi kick?

This study aimed to measure the associative and predictive strength of biomechanical variables of the countermovement jump (CMJ) and squat jump (SJ), and performance of the bandal-chagi kick performed with the dominant (D) rear lower limb in elite Taekwondo Athletes. For this, a total of 27 international level athletes (15 males and 12 females) performed the CMJ and SJ on two force platforms. The bandal-chagi was monitored using a motion capture system (VICON). The main results indicated that non-dominant (ND) Stiffness for the CMJ showed predictive power alone (p=0.048) or in combination with eccentric breaking rating of force development (RFD) (p=0.031) for total hip angular speed. Takeoff peak force/BM for the SJ predicted total time (p=0.002). Concentric RFD/BM predicted total linear foot acceleration, either alone (p=0.001) or with vertical speed at takeoff (p=0.042). The total hip angular acceleration predictor was takeoff peak force D alone (p=0.019) or in combination with peak power/BM (p=0.041). In conclusion, CMJ and SJ tests showed specific associations with TKD kick performance. These analyses in this study indicated that they are good predictors for TKD athletes, producing results consistent with the participants’ levels. Keywords: Martial arts, Biomechanical Phenomena, Time-motion studies, Kinanthropometry, Motion Capture.

In-contest body acceleration profiles for the judo male and female weight divisions.

This study aimed to determine the body accelerations (BA) profile of the judo contest of the male and female weight divisions and to ascertain the involvement of the vertical, mediolateral and anteroposterior axes in it. Forty-eight male and forty-eight female national and international level athletes (some of them medalists in World, European and national championships) participated in a 5-min simulated contest (official fight time plus breaks) against an opponent of the same sex and weight division, wearing an accelerometer. Heart rate, blood lactate and ratings of perceived exertion were recorded to certify that the athletes performed the fullest. The t2way test expressed differences in the athletes' BA (p = 0.001) and three profiles were identified: the light/middle weight male divisions, the light/middle weight female divisions and the heavy male and female ones. Athletes of all weight divisions performed their BA during the contest in all three directions (the one-sample Person's chi-square did not detect any significantly predominant one: p = 0.400, p = 0.631, p = 0.844, p = 0.749, p = 0.644 and p = 0.895, for male light, moderate and heavy, female light, moderate and heavyweight athletes, respectively). Monte Carlo method simulations suggested as the most likely scenarios those with BA involving all axes, with a slight preference of the anteroposterior and mediolateral ones. These results suggest that the demands on judo athletes in a contest differ between weight classes and sexes.

Mental Health in Elite Athletes: A Systematic Review of Suicidal Behaviour as Compared to the General Population.

Previous systematic reviews on mental health in athletes have found athletes to be at a potentially increased risk for mental health diagnoses compared to the public. Multiple cross-sectional studies have examined suicide behaviour within different athlete populations, but there is a need for a comprehensive review to synthesize and identify risk factors and epidemiology regarding suicide behaviour in the elite athlete population, especially as it compares to the general population. A systematic literature search was performed in MEDLINE, EMBASE, Scopus, and Web of Science from 1990 to January 2023. Inclusion criteria included original peer-reviewed research articles examining suicidal ideation, suicide attempt, or suicide completion within elite athlete populations. Exclusion criteria included athletes participating in high-school or Paralympic level sports, studies that did not report results regarding elite athletes and non-athletes separately, and non-peer reviewed work. All studies were screened for inclusion by two independent reviewers. The primary outcome variables extracted from included studies included rates, risk factors, and protective factors for suicide behaviour. The study quality and risk of bias was evaluated for each study using the Joanna-Briggs Institute (JBI) critical appraisal tools. Of the 875 unique studies identified, 22 studies, all of which were cross-sectional in nature, met the inclusion criteria. Seven studies evaluated previous athletes, 13 studies evaluated current athletes, and two studies included a combination of previous and current athletes. Seven studies involved varsity college athletes, nine involved professional athletes of various sports, and six focused on international or Olympic level athletes. The rate of suicidal ideation in professional athletes ranged from 6.9 to 18% across four studies, while the rate in collegiate athletes ranged from 3.7 to 6.5% across three studies. Ten studies compared athletes to the general population, the majority of which found athletes to be at reduced risk of suicidal ideation, suicide attempt, and suicide completion. Only one study found athletes to have increased rates of suicide compared to matched non-athletes. Risk factors for suicide behaviour identified across multiple studies included male sex, non-white race, older age, and depression. Player position, athletic level, sport played, and injuries showed trends of having limited effect on suicide behaviour risk. This review suggests that elite athletes generally demonstrate reduced risk of suicidal ideation, suicide attempt, and suicide completion compared to the general population. Coaches should remain aware of specific factors, such as male sex, non-white race, and higher athletic level, in order to better identify at-risk athletes. Limitations of this review include the heterogeneity in the methodology and athlete populations across the included studies. Therefore, future targeted research is essential to compare suicide behaviour between sports and identify sport-specific suicide risk factors. PROSPERO Registration: CRD42023395990.

Body morphology and handgrip strength parameters of the female canoe slalom paddlers.

Introduction: Canoe slalom is a physically very demanding discipline, in which body constitution, body composition, and relative strength are significant factors in high performance. Although anthropometric and strength parameters are relatively well-studied in male athletes, there is a lack of evidence for any conclusions in women. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the morphology and upper-limb strength parameters of female canoe slalom paddlers and identify whether morphological differences exist between performance groups. Methods: Altogether, 63 female competitors of the 2023 ICF Canoe Slalom World Cup (n = 29) and 2023 ICF Canoe Slalom World Ranking Competition (n = 34) in Prague (Czech Republic) were examined with a battery of anthropometric tests, segmental bioimpedance analysis, and handgrip strength test. The athletes were divided into groups according to age and performance: elite athletes belonging to the world top 10 according to the ICF World Ranking (WORLD, n = 7), international-level athletes competing during the World Cup (ELITE, n = 22), international-level junior athletes competing in the World Ranking Race (JUNIOR, n = 17), and other lower performance-level athletes competing in the World Ranking Race (REST, n = 17). Results: Female slalom paddlers are, in general, of average body height (∼165cm), lower body mass (∼60kg), BMI (∼22kg/m2), and body fat (∼20%) and without exceptional anthropometric dimensions and proportions. However, differences were detected when performance was factored in. Female paddlers belonging to the world TOP 10 have the largest circumferences of arms and forearms, and their somatotype is more mesomorphic, with a lower proportion of total body fat and a higher proportion of muscle mass. In addition, the WORLD group differs significantly in upper-limb strength. Discussion: The results shows the significance of muscular strength and power for canoe slalom athletes and the importance of well-developed musculature in operating the boat in the unstable environment. Being a successful female canoe slalom athlete requires a well-developed musculature, maximizing strength capabilities while maintaining a low body weight through limited hypertrophy of the lower limbs and a low level of body fat.

The role of the six factors model of athletic mental energy in mediating athletes’ well-being in competitive sports

In the realm of high-performance sports, athletes often prioritize success at the expense of their well-being. Consequently, sports psychology researchers are now focusing on creating psychological profiles for athletes that can forecast their performance while safeguarding their overall well-being. A recent development in this field is the concept of athletic mental energy (AME), which has been associated with both sporting success and positive emotions. Therefore, the aim of this study was to explore if AME in athletes can mediate this directly observed relationship between performance and psychological well-being. For stronger predictive validity these relationships were examined across two studies with each involving distinct sets of participants engaged in various sports disciplines, including football, cricket, basketball, archery, and more. The self-report measures of sports performance, athletic mental energy (AME), and psychological well-being (PWB) were administered post-competition on the local, regional, state, national, international, and professional level athletes of age 18 and above. Our study found that both, the affective and cognitive components of AME mediated the athletes’ performance and psychological well–being relationship. Interestingly, the study found no significant gender differences in AME and PWB scores. While family structures didn’t yield significant variations in AME scores, there were some descriptive distinctions in PWB scores across different family structures. Our research offers preliminary evidence suggesting that AME can play a pivotal role in preserving athletes’ psychological well-being following competitive events.

Evaluating High-performance Female Athletes’ Knowledge and Awareness of Atrial Fibrillation

Background: Atrial fibrillation (AFib) is a common cardiac arrhythmia with emerging evidence suggesting a high risk in athletes may exist, especially those engaged in vigorous physical activity. While substantial research has examined male athletes, limited data exists for female athletes, despite their growing presence in elite sports. AFib poses a health risk as it can progress without symptoms, potentially leading to severe complications, including heart failure and stroke. Athletes, accustomed to discomfort in their competitive pursuits, may delay seeking care even after retiring from sport, compounding the issue. Objectives: Therefore, we investigated the level of AFib-related knowledge in Canadian females, defined as high-performance athletes who had or were competing at a national or international level. Methods: Our online cross-sectional survey employed the 21-question Atrial Fibrillation Knowledge and Assessment Tool (AFKAT), with an additional question to assess awareness of an AFib diagnosis. Results: Participants were recruited through research websites and were mostly over 40 years old (45/52), Caucasian (50/52), university educated (39/53), from the sport of curling (41/52), and 62% (32/52) had competed at an international level. The mean knowledge score was 12.63 ± 5.79 out of 21 and was significantly different between international-level athletes (14.22 ± 4.38) when compared to national-level athletes (10.10 ± 6.91; p = 0.011). Conclusions: Varying levels of AFib knowledge were observed within this population, and our results importantly identified a discrepancy based on competition level, with international-level female athletes demonstrating higher AFib knowledge levels. This highlights the necessity for targeted educational interventions, to inform and increase athletes’ cardiovascular awareness of the potential risk of AFib.

PERFIL DE TREINAMENTO DO PARA-POWERLIFTING BRASILEIRO NA PANDEMIA DE COVID-19

Introduction: The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a closure of training facilities due to government restrictions and social distancing, impacting amateurs and professional athletes. Objective: The purpose of this study was to describe the profile training of Brazilian Paralympic Powerlifters before and during the COVID-19 pandemic and verify the differences between international and national level athletes. Methods: Brazilian Paralympic Powerlifters (n=49) completed a self-reported online survey about training practices before and during the COVID-19 pandemic, motivation, satisfaction, and self-performance perception. Results: Paralympic Powerlifters have 34±10.6 years old, 156.5±20.8 cm, and 81.9±86.2 kg. Mann-Whitney test shows that international level athletes (i.e. Paralympic Games, Parapan American Games, and World Championship) had significantly more sport experience (years) compared to national level athletes (U=153.500; p=0.009). 83.7% of athletes reported being engaged in training during the COVID-19 Pandemic with changes in training location, training equipment, and coaching. Of the athletes who continue training, 65.9% reported feeling motivated to training, 34.1% reported not feeling motivated (=12.071; p<0.001). A significant association between training motivation (=13.359; p=0.001) and satisfaction (=13.435; p=0.001) with their self-performance perception were found. Conclusion: Most athletes reported being engaged in training during the COVID-19 Pandemic with significant changes in training location, equipment, and coaching. Understanding the changes in training practices during restriction periods, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, supports strategies to maintain the athlete’s engagement in Paralympic Powerlifting.

Comparative analysis of cardiorespiratory fitness, bio-motor abilities, and body composition indicators among sprint kayakers of different age groups and expertise levels.

This study compared cardiorespiratory fitness, bio-motor abilities, and body composition indexes of sprint kayakers categorized into three different age groups and two expertise levels of international- and club-level athletes. Seventy-three male juniors (n = 14, age = 16.2 ± 0.8), under 23 [U23 (n = 15, age = 20.2 ± 1.6)], professionals (n = 16, age = 27.1 ± 4.8), club-level (n = 15, age = 26.9 ± 6.6), and international-level (n = 13, age = 27.3 ± 3.2) sprint kayakers were studied. Cardiorespiratory fitness (assessed using incremental exercise test), 500 and 1,000-m paddling performance (assessed using kayak ergometer), upper-body power (assessed using 30s all-out Wingate test) and strength (assessed through one repetition tests for bench press, cable row, and prone bench pull exercises), as well as body composition indexes (measured using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry) were evaluated on four occasions separated by 48h recovery. U23 and, especially, professionals indicated significantly (p < 0.05) greater outcomes for the majority of the cardiorespiratory fitness parameters [maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), velocity corresponding to VO2max, Oxygen pulse, maximal ventilation, and second ventilatory threshold] and 500 and 1,000-m performance. U23 and professional sprint kayakers significantly (p < 0.05) differed in the first ventilatory threshold and 500, and 1,000-m performance but not in VO2max or the second ventilatory threshold. Professionals also showed a lower fat mass, higher muscle mass, and higher strength (bench press, prone bench pull, and seated cable row) and power than U23 and junior kayakers. Strength and power indicators had significantly greater values in U23 athletes compared to juniors. International-level athletes also showed superior VO2max, velocity corresponding to VO2max, middle (500-m), and long-distance (1,000-m) time trial performance, strength and power, lower fat, and higher muscle mass than club-level sprint kayakers. Cardiorespiratory fitness (particularly ventilatory threshold), body composition, and muscle strength/power are the best differentiating factors for sprint kayakers of different ages and expertise levels. These findings could aid coaches in prescribing training programs focusing on improving determining factors in paddling performance, as well as in predicting performance and identifying talent.

Comparative Analysis of the Influence of Coaches' Beliefs on the Attitude of Athletes to the Use of Prohibited Substances

This study focuses on the beliefs and attitudes towards doping of Coaches and Athletes in Armenia, Georgia and Moldova, and on the similarities and differences between Armenia, Georgia and Moldova on these measures. In total, 270 coaches and 810 athletes were selected and completed the questionnaire. Self-completion questionnaires for coaches and athletes were developed in a first-phase Pilot study and approved by World Anti-Doping Agency. Overall, 14% of participants represented team sports disciplines and 86% represented individual sports disciplines. More than half of the athletes were international-level athletes. About 80% of coaches and athletes were males. Whilst there was some variation between the three countries in mean ages and experience of participants, none of these was statistically significant. Analyzing the results, we can conclude that the social and professional behavior of coaches may not be the reason that may push athletes to use the Prohibited substances. The great danger is the illiteracy of coaches in the anti-doping field. If we compare the results obtained in this study with previous data in other studies, it can be assumed that coaches' delusions are transmitted to athletes, which are formed as a result of receiving incorrect information from other coaches or the media. In some cases, such as in relation to the Prohibited List, this may lead to unforeseen consequences. The obtained results show that it mandatory to include the information in the educational programs for coaches, about the athletes’ duties, ways and means to control their behavior, revealing in detail the mechanisms of such control. A necessary condition for the new Educational program for coaches may also be the holding of education seminars and workshops for athletes with the obligatory presence of their coaches using “the coach and his athletes” formula.

John Henryism and fear of failure in competitive sport: predicting competitive standard and mental well-being

ABSTRACTThere is a growing need to understand the association and interaction of psychological factors with an athlete’s competitive standard and mental well-being. John Henryism is defined as a coping mechanism that involves the expenditure of extreme efforts in response to prolonged exposure to psychosocial and environmental stressors. The aim of this study was to investigate whether John Henryism, fear of failure and the John Henryism × fear of failure interaction (JH×FF) could predict an athlete’s competitive standard, as well as mental well-being. A cross-sectional design was employed; 250 athletes (52% male, 48% female, Mage = 29.36 years) completed an online questionnaire. Hypotheses were partly supported. Results revealed that John Henryism predicted an athlete’s competitive standard, with individuals reporting high John Henryism more likely to compete at an international level than a regional, third tier or national level. Fear of failure was only significant in distinguishing national and international level athletes, with those reporting high fear of failure more likely to compete at a national level. JH×FF did not predict an athlete’s competitive standard. Further, John Henryism and fear of failure predicted mental well-being, but JH×FF did not. Specifically, while fear of failure negatively predicted mental well-being, as expected, John Henryism positively predicted mental well-being, contradicting expectations that factors aiding competitive standard are likely to deter mental well-being. Given these findings, future research should evaluate if interventions aimed at easing fear of failure or encouraging more active coping (i.e., John Henryism) benefit the well-being of athletes competing nationally or internationally.

Anthropometric characteristics of elite male taekwondo athletes according to weight category and performance level

The aim of this study was to: 1) compare the anthropometric characteristics of elite male taekwondo athletes between selected weight categories using the ‘full’ International Society for Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK) profile; and 2) compare the index of sitting height/stature ratio, and lower-limb segment lengths between standards of competitors. Thirty-two elite male taekwondo athletes volunteered to take part and they were categorised according to five competition weight categories (&lt;58, &lt;63, &lt;68, &lt;74, and &lt;87kg). Anthropometric measurements were performed according to the ISAK profile protocol (42 measures), and the data were compared between the weight categories. Athletes were also divided into two groups based upon their previous success and selected variables were compared between the groups. Significant differences were identified in a range of anthropometric variables between athletes’ weight categories, including percentage of body fat [%BF], skinfold thickness, measurement girths, lengths and widths, and somatotype components. Such differences were generally more notable between the lighter (&lt;58kg) and heavier (&lt;63, &lt;68, &lt;74, and &lt;87kg) weight categories, with lighter weight categories tending to exhibit lower %BF, skinfold thickness, smaller/shorter specific limb girths, breadths, and lengths, and lower endomorphy when compared with their heavier weight counterparts. International level athletes displayed significantly lower sitting height/ stature ratio, and greater iliospinale and tibiale laterale height than their national level counterparts (p &lt; .05). The findings of this study provide focused reference values to assist preparations for selected weight categories within the sport, and they offer a framework to support talent identification programmes.

Impact of maximal strength training on countermovement jump phase characteristics in athletes with cerebral palsy

ABSTRACT Analysis of the countermovement jump (CMJ) force–time curve phases provides insight into athlete neuromuscular function and methods by which jump height improves in response to training. A CMJ phase analysis and the dynamic strength index (DSI) have yet to be explored in athletes with cerebral palsy (CP). This study aimed to address this knowledge gap. Eleven state- to international-level athletes with CP completed a pre-post maximal strength training intervention with waitlist control. CMJ was assessed via force plate pre/post baseline and after the 12-week intervention. Following the intervention, CMJ height, takeoff velocity, and concentric phase peak and mean force, impulse and mean acceleration improved significantly (p = 0.006–0.001). No changes were observed in any eccentric braking phase variable (p = 0.79–0.13), while DSI lowered (p = 0.03). In athletes with CP, strength training increased CMJ concentric phase peak and mean force and impulse, increasing velocity and acceleration and therefore jump height. DSI lowered due to moderate and small increases in isometric mid-thigh pull and CMJ peak force, respectively. Unlike in non-disabled athletes, strength training did not alter any eccentric phase variable; therefore, other modalities may be required to further optimize jumping performance in athletes with CP.

Effective Delivery of Pressure Training: Perspectives of Athletes and Sport Psychologists

Pressure training (PT) strategically increases pressure in training to prepare athletes to perform under pressure. Although research has studied how to create pressure during training, PT’s effectiveness may depend on more than creating pressure. A practitioner’s delivery of sport psychology interventions can moderate their effectiveness, so the current study explored perspectives of sport psychologists and athletes on the characteristics of effective PT delivery in applied settings. Eight international-level athletes and eight sport psychologists participated in semistructured qualitative interviews in which they described their experience participating in or conducting PT, respectively. Thematic analysis produced four themes relating to effective delivery: (a) collaboration with athletes and coaches: “with,” not “to”; (b) integration into training; (c) upfront transparency; and (d) promoting learning before and after PT. The themes provide guidance for planning, conducting, and following up on PT sessions in applied settings. The best practices discussed could increase athletes’ receptiveness to PT.

Effect of Intensive Physical Loads on Plasma Testosterone and Cortisol Concentration in Elite Athletes

The study purpose was to investigate changes in the content of testosterone and cortisol in the blood of qualified athletes after testing them to determine their maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max). &#x0D; Materials and methods. Thirty-seven international level athletes: 15 biathletes, 12 rowers, 6 boxers, 4 modern pentathletes participated in this study. The test to evaluate VO2max used exercise of increasing intensity on a rowing ergometer for rowers and on a treadmill for biathletes, boxers, modern pentathletes. Total testosterone and cortisol concentrations were determined in blood serum by an immunoenzyme analyzer before and after the test for determination of VO2max. &#x0D; Results. The concentration of total testosterone has been found to decrease significantly on average by 24,4% and the concentration of cortisol has increased by 34% due to physical activity. The highest level of maximum oxygen consumption was found in athletes with high levels of basal testosterone and cortisol in the blood. There is a high correlation between the basal content of total testosterone and the maximum consumption of oxygen in athletes (r = 0,58). &#x0D; Conclusions. The high content of basal testosterone and cortisol is an important factor for the athlete’s special working efficiency: higher level of basal cortisol has been accompanied by smaller increases in cortisol per load and high basal level of testosterone makes is possible to keep its concentration sufficient. The concentration of total testosterone and cortisol can be used as a marker of the effect of a training load.

Sleep regularity in athletes: Comparing sex, competitive level and sport type

ABSTRACT This study aims to describe the athletes’ sleep regularity using the Sleep Regularity Index (SRI) and determine whether factors, such as sex, competitive level and sport type, could affect the sleep/wake rhythm. It is a descriptive, cross-sectional study consisting of 172 athletes (25 ± 7 y old; 45 women). Seventy-three competed in team sports and 99 in individual sports. Furthermore, 56 competed in the international level, 95 in the national and 21 in the regional. We recorded the SRI values for at least 5 d via continuous actigraphy. We recorded a mean SRI value of 73 ± 12. We found no significant differences between athletes’ sleep parameters in relation to sleep regularity. Furthermore, SRI data showed no correlations (Spearman’s ρ) with sleep parameters, bed time and wake time. Female athletes (p = 0.001) and individual sport athletes (p = 0.001) reported better sleep regularity than their counterparts. International-level athletes reported better sleep regularity than those in other competitive levels (national: p = 0.001; regional: p = 0.024). Our study showed that international level athletes, female athletes and individual sport athletes reported better sleep regularity. Additionally, SRI data showed no correlation with athletes’ sleep parameters, bed and wake time.

Effect of Cognitive Reappraisal on Archery Performance of Elite Athletes: The Mediating Effects of Sport-Confidence and Attention.

Through empirical studies or laboratory tests, previous studies have shown that sport-confidence, attention, and emotion regulation are key factors in archery performance. The present study aims to further identify the effects and pathways of sport-confidence, attention, and cognitive reappraisal (a specific emotion regulation strategy) on real-world archery performance by constructing a hypothesized model to provide a basis for scientific training of athletes to improve sport performance. A survey design was utilized on a sample of 61 athletes (12 international-level athletes, 30 national-level athletes, and 19 first-class athletes) from the Chinese National Archery Team to test the model. The measurement and hypothesized models were tested using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The results indicate that the model fit well and explained 33.6% of the variance in archery performance. Sport-confidence (total effects = 0.574, p < 0.001) and attention (total effects = 0.344, p = 0.009) were important predictive indicators of archery performance, while the relationship between cognitive reappraisal and archery performance showed considerable complexity (direct effects = −0.268, p = 0.020; total effects = −0.007, p = 0.964). We conclude that the development of sport-confidence and attention of archery athletes should be strengthened, but athletes who use cognitive reappraisal in archery competition should be mindful of its potential appropriation of cognitive resources and should be directed to improve sport-confidence or develop a positive orientation to arouse excitement.

The role and creation of pressure in training: Perspectives of athletes and sport psychologists

To prepare athletes for psychological pressure of competition, pressure training (PT) systematically applies pressure on athletes during training. This study explored how to create pressure for PT and how PT improves performance in competition. Specifically, it aimed to explore the views of sport psychologists and athletes on: (a) common properties of effective pressure manipulations, and (b) PT’s mechanisms for improving performance under pressure. Eight sport psychologists and eight international-level athletes participated in semi-structured interviews. Thematic analysis identified three properties of effective pressure manipulations: (a) extending the reach of consequences, (b) simulating psychological demands of competition, and (c) approximating, but not replicating, intensity of competition pressure. Analysis also produced three themes that described how PT benefits performance: (a) learn and practice coping skills, (b) “change the relationship” with pressure, and (c) increase the quality of training. Understanding these benefits can help communicate to athletes why they should participate in PT. Lay summary: Pressure in training can help athletes adjust to pressure in competition, and this study found that practitioners can create pressure by applying psychological demands and consequences that have an extended impact on athletes. Athletes can then practice coping skills and learn that pressure does not have to hurt performance. Applied implications To create pressure in training, practitioners should implement pressure manipulations that increase the sense of importance to perform well. These pressure manipulations include consequences that have extended reach or demands that emphasize psychological challenges of competition. PT helps athletes train mental skills learned in workshops or one-on-one consulting.

Proposal of a Normative Table for Classification of Body Fat Percentage in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Athletes

Previous evidence indicates that body fat can distinguish Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) athletes according to the competitive level. However, propositions of cut-off points for establishing classifications of body fat percentage for combat sports athletes and, specifically, for BJJ athletes are still incipient in the literature. In this sense, the main aim of the present study was to establish a normative table for the classification of body fat percentage in BJJ athletes. As a secondary aim, athletes were compared according to competitive level. Ninety male BJJ athletes (aged: 29.0 ± 8.2 years; practice time: 6.0 ± 2.1 years; body mass: 82.1 ± 12.7 kg; height: 175.9 ± 6.5 cm; fat mass: 16.0 ± 8.9 kg; bone mineral content: 3.7 ± 0.6 kg; muscle mass: 37.9 ± 5.4 kg; body fat percentage: 17.3 ± 6.8 %; basal metabolic rate: 1811.4 ± 193.4 kcal) from different competitive levels: state (n= 42), national (n= 26) and international (n= 22) took part in this study. All athletes had their body composition measured via tetrapolar bioelectrical impedance. Percentiles p10, p25, p50, p75, and p90 were used to establish the classification. As a result, the following classification was obtained: <7.7 % (very low); ≥7.7-11.5 % (low); 11.6-17.0 % (medium); 17.1-24.0 % (high) and ≥24.1 % (very high). State-level athletes had a higher fat percentage than national and international-level athletes (p<0.05). The proposed cut-off points can help professionals responsible for sports training and nutritional prescription in monitoring the body fat of BJJ athletes.

CHANGES IN METABOLIC EFFICIENCY IN SKILLED ATHLETES DURING INTENSE EXERCISE

The body’s predominant choice of substrates and the rate of their oxidation in the working muscle are largely influenced by physical activity intensity. The higher the intensity of work, the more important role in energy supply processes are played by carbohydrates. It is suggested that the ability to most effectively use fat as an energy substrate at rest and during exercise allows athletes to save carbohydrates to perform high-intensity work. This study investigated the efficiency of metabolism in skilled athletes at rest and during the exercise of increasing intensity. 99 body composition assessments (via bioelectrical impedance) and 99 incremental exercise tests using a gas analysis system were performed in 90 male national- and international-level athletes (age 16-35 y.o.) of sports related to endurance and combat sports. The respiratory exchange ratio in skilled athletes at rest significantly correlates with the values of respiratory exchange ratio when reaching the anaerobic threshold ((r = 0.52, р ≤ 0,05)) and respiratory exchange ratio when reaching the maximum oxygen consumption ((r = 0.52, р ≤ 0,05)) and with the maximum oxygen consumption (r = -0.26, р ≤ 0,05). The oobtained data shows that efficient resting metabolism creates the preconditions for more efficient use of energy substrates during intense muscle activity. The respiratory exchange ratio is an informative indicator of the efficiency of metabolism, which can be used in the complex control of the functional condition of the athlete.