International Institute For Sustainable Development Research Articles

Effects of metformin on wild fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) using in-lake mesocosms in a boreal lake ecosystem

Due to its widespread use for the treatment of Type-2 diabetes, metformin is routinely detected in surface waters globally. Laboratory studies have shown that environmentally relevant concentrations of metformin can adversely affect the health of adult fish, with effects observed more frequently in males. However, the potential risk to wild fish populations has yet to be fully elucidated and remains a topic of debate. To explore whether environmentally relevant metformin exposure poses a risk to wild fish populations, the present study exposed wild fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) to 5 or 50 μg/L metformin via 2 m diameter in-lake mesocosms deployed in a natural boreal lake in Northern Ontario at the International Institute for Sustainable Development - Experimental Lakes Area (IISD-ELA). Environmental monitoring was performed at regular intervals for 8-weeks, with fish length, weight (body, liver and gonad), condition factor, gonadosomatic index, liver-somatic index, body composition (water and biomolecules) and hematocrit levels evaluated at test termination. Metabolic endpoints were also evaluated using liver, brain and muscle tissue, and gonads were evaluated histologically. Results indicate that current environmental exposure scenarios may be sufficient to adversely impact the health of wild fish populations. Adult male fish exposed to metformin had significantly reduced whole body weight and condition factor and several male fish from the high-dose metformin had oocytes in their testes. Metformin-exposed fish had altered moisture and lipid (decrease) content in their tissues. Further, brain (increase) and liver (decrease) glycogen were altered in fish exposed to high-dose metformin. To our knowledge, this study constitutes the first effort to understand metformin's effects on a wild small-bodied fish population under environmentally relevant field exposure conditions.

Partial climatic risk screening, adaptation and livelihoods in a coastal urban area in Ghana

Coastal urban areas worldwide are increasingly becoming convergence points for climatic hazards, demographic shifts, and spatial development. However, the presence of societal demands that impact both livelihoods and urban planning in response to climatic hazards undermines the potential positive outcomes. This research, conducted in a coastal urban area of Ghana's Greater Accra Region, utilized the Community-based Risk Screening Tool – Adaptation and Livelihoods (CRiSTAL) developed by the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) to analyze the experiences of climatic hazards and overall livelihoods of the population. The study employed Ghana's Census Sampling Frame for implementation, and Participatory Learning Approaches, to collect data which it identified floods, heavy storms, and heat stress as the most significant hazards. These hazards greatly influenced the population's physical, social, and financial livelihood assets, resulting in losses and damages caused by heavy rains, storms, and subsequent floods. Extreme heat also had a notable impact on human and financial resources. The local population prioritized human mobility and livelihood diversification as important adaptation strategies. The findings have important policy implications, highlighting the need to address barriers and disruptions in resilience-building and sustainability efforts, emphasizing the significance of prioritizing policy investment and considering climate change uncertainties in planning towards minimizing “urban climate policy inhibition” (Urban-CPI). The study also revealed valuable lessons, such as CRiSTAL's ability to bridge the gap between climatic risk and livelihood issues, bringing them closer to communities and enhancing preparedness to adapt to climatic risks and impacts on livelihoods.

Toward a Super-COP? Timing, Temporality, and Rethinking World Climate Governance

Toward a Super-COP? Timing, Temporality, and Rethinking World Climate Governance

Health in global biodiversity governance: what is next?

The dependency of human health and wellbeing on nature is documented across disciplines, regions, cultures, and economies. Environmental degradation contributes substantially to the global burden of disease and concurrent global environmental changes are increasingly recognised as public health threats, worldwide. 1 Myers SS Gaffikin L Golden CD et al. Human health impacts of ecosystem alteration. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2013; 110: 18753-18760 Crossref PubMed Scopus (268) Google Scholar The 196 parties to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) have called for increased engagement on biodiversity and health since 2014, 2 Willetts L Nature negotiations: sharing responsibility for global health. Lancet Planet Health. 2022; 6: e554-e556 Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar while calls from stakeholders for integrated decision making are similarly long standing. 3 Whitmee S Haines A Beyrer C et al. Safeguarding human health in the Anthropocene epoch: report of The Rockefeller Foundation–Lancet Commission on planetary health. Lancet. 2015; 386: 1973-2028 Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1125) Google Scholar Yet few civil society health organisations have historically engaged with the CBD and its intergovernmental negotiating process. 4 Willetts E Grant L Bansard J et al. Health in the global environmental agenda: a policy guide. International Institute for Sustainable Development. https://www.iisd.org/publications/health-global-environment-agenda-policy-guideDate: 2022 Date accessed: January 16, 2023 Google Scholar This situation is, however, changing. In 2022, civil society health professionals and organisations were involved in the CBD agenda-setting (intersessional subsidiary body) and decision-making (Conference of the Parties [COP]) meetings. Five civil society health organisations attended the 15th UN Biodiversity Conference (COP 15) in Montréal, Canada, as newly accredited delegations to the CBD. The new participation of these organisations in global biodiversity governance embodies the interdisciplinary work needed to take a whole-of-society approach to respecting planetary boundaries and prioritising the environmental determinants of health. The agenda of the UN CBD recognises and increasingly includes health. Now is the time to mobilise contributions from diverse health experts to inform integrated policy.

The impacts of whole-lake acidification and eutrophication on the accumulation of lead in sediments from manipulated lakes in the Experimental Lakes Area (IISD-ELA)

Acidification and eutrophication are common limnological stressors impacting many water bodies across the globe. While the negative impacts of these stressors on limnetic communities are generally known, their influence on the accumulation of specific sediment constituents, such as metals, remains unclear. Benefitting from past research and long-term monitoring, lakes at the International Institute for Sustainable Development - Experimental Lakes Area (IISD-ELA) in northwestern Ontario, Canada are invaluable to understand the extent to which these two common lake stressors can influence the accumulation of metals in lacustrine sediment. To address these issues, sediment cores were retrieved from six lakes: four were subjected to past experimental acidification or eutrophication and two were reference lakes. Focusing on elemental lead (Pb), a metal known to have accumulated in lake sediments worldwide and generally exhibiting a relatively small fraction of terrigenous input, we assessed the hypothesis that greater accumulation of Pb would be observed in lakes subjected to eutrophication, while the reverse was expected for lakes subjected to acidification experiments. Our analyses support this hypothesis, whereby relatively low enrichment was recorded in sediments deposited in the acidified lake during the manipulation era. On the other hand, eutrophied lakes demonstrated a strong enrichment in Pb during experimental manipulation. When investigating the mechanisms behind these divergent responses, we found epilimnetic dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and conductivity were associated with a relative increase in Pb accumulation in sediments. Acidic pH is also expected to mediate these responses by decreasing epilimnetic DOC concentrations leading to reduced Pb accumulation in the sediment.

Periostracum of bivalve mollusk shells for sampling engineered metal nanoparticles: A case study of silver-based nanoparticles in Canada's experimental lake.

Given the ability of engineered metal nanoparticles to be transformed in natural waters in unpredictable manners, various sampling methods must be developed. Here, we took a novel approach to collection silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) that involved the use of the intact periostracum, the outer proteinaceous organic layer, of freshwater unionid mussels Pyganodon sp. Eight adult mussels were collected in August 2019 from a small boreal lake (L222) at the International Institute for Sustainable Development - Experimental Lakes Area (northwestern Ontario), which had been dosed with 15kg of poly(vinylpyrrolidone)-coated silver nanoparticles (PVP-AgNPs) in 2014-2015. Additionally, three adult mussels were collected from a control lake (L375). Numerous silica (SiO2) diatom frustules were adhered to periostracum of all mussels. Intact periostracum promotes the formation of layer composed of diatoms and sand grains. The Ag content in soft tissues and shells of the mussels from L375 was as low as ≤ 0.1 μg/g. In mussels from L222, Ag concentrations in the periostracum of five shells were in detectable amounts (1-4 μg/g); in three shells concentrations were as high as 86, 122, and 494 μg/g. The underlying mineral shell is depleted in Ag (<0.1 μg/g). The Ag content in soft tissue organs (whole body) ranged from 44 to 191 μg/g. AgNPs occur on the surface of both periostracum and diatoms. Single AgNPs (d=20-60nm) were partly sulfidized to Ag2S. The observed AgNPs often form aggregates with an average and a maximal size of circa 100nm and 1.5 μm, respectively. Scraping small fragments of intact periostracum of unionid shell is non-lethal to mussels, and is easy to do under field conditions. This simple sampling protocol could be used to detect metal-based nanoparticles (engineered or accidental) with the use of unionid and dreissenid bivalves.

Cutting-Edge Issues in International Dispute Resolution

Esmé Shirlow presented the findings of a policy paper developed in collaboration with the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), titled Approaches of International Courts and Tribunals to the Award of Compensation in International Private Property Cases and Implications for the Reform of Investor-State Arbitration. The policy paper follows previous IISD work on compensation in investor-state arbitration, which left open the question of whether approaches to issues of compensation in investor-state arbitration differ from the approaches of other international courts and tribunals (hereinafter, courts), and the extent to which this comparative practice might offer inspiration or ideas for ongoing investor-state dispute settlement reform. The research presented by Dr. Shirlow seeks to answer this question by analyzing how issues of compensation have been analyzed in cases concerning alleged state interferences with private property filed before the Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ), International Court of Justice (ICJ), International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS), United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea Annex VII Tribunals, European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACtHPR), and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR).

Reforming fossil fuel subsidies requires a new approach to setting international commitments

Reforming fossil fuel subsidies requires a new approach to setting international commitments

Education for Sustainable Development (ESD): Awareness of the Pakistani Prospective Teachers

Purpose: The major purpose of current study was to explore the awareness regarding education for sustainable development (ESD) of the Pakistani prospective teachers. It is necessary to explore the understanding and awareness of prospective teachers for further implementation process of ESD in the Pakistan general education to achieve UNESCO’s aim of Education for Sustainable Development (2005-2014). As future generation can shape society in a sustainable manner so it is necessary to investigate the comprehension of prospective teachers regarding ESD&#x0D; Methodology: Population of the study was all prospective teachers. Total 115 prospective teachers of a public university were taken as a sample of this study in Lahore. It was cross sectional study and quantitative in nature. The data was collected through standardized instrument questionnaire which was consisted on 19 statements (International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2009).&#x0D; Findings: Current study found that students have already much awareness about ESD before teaching the course of ESD thus there is not major difference of awareness about ESD among students before teaching and after teaching the ESD course.&#x0D; Implications: It is recommended that as students already have awareness about ESD without teaching ESD as a course thus awareness might be given through multimedia, advertisements in T.V, radio, banners and other colorful sources from early education. So such subjects should be included in elementary education.

A New Concept of Circular Model of Management for Achieving Sustainable Success and Growth

According to the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), sustainable development has been defined in many ways, and it states that: “Sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” We have seen a lot of focus on sustainable development starting from the initiative of the United Nations which has made all nations focus on Sustainable Goals to be achieved by 2030, to large conglomerates and small business enterprises likewise focussing on sustainable business practices, which if well planned would yield success and growth. In light of the global challenges faced in relation to environmental, economic and social resources sustainable development leading to sustainable success and growth calls for a significant rethinking in the management of resources within the, and external to the organization. In this paper, we propound the furthering of a circular economy concept to management as ‘circular model of management’. Borrowed from the concept of circular economy, a circular economy (as against a linear economy) is an economic system aimed at minimizing waste and making the most of resources. Moving towards a circular economy delivers benefits such as reducing pressure on resources, increases competitiveness, stimulates innovation and boosts growth. This study is developed through extensive work in subsistence communities (base of the pyramid customers) in emerging markets. A circular economy promotes social, environmental, economic and overall restorative and regenerative capabilities, similarly, a circular model of management will as envisaged promote regenerative and restorative capability in the organization which will ensure sustainable growth and success by means of ensuring the reduction of leakage of resources to the minimum and applicability to the maximum.

Effects of selenium on benthic macroinvertebrates and fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) in a boreal lake ecosystem

Selenium (Se) is a contaminant of concern in many aquatic ecosystems due to its narrow range between essentiality and toxicity in oviparous (yolk-bearing) vertebrates. The objective of the present study was to determine the effects of Se, experimentally added to in situ limnocorrals as selenite, on invertebrate communities and fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) at environmentally realistic Se concentrations. Nine limnocorrals were deployed in a mesotrophic lake at the International Institute for Sustainable Development – Experimental Lakes Area in Ontario, Canada in May 2017. From June 1 to August 17, 2017, selenite was added to six enclosures to attain mean measured aqueous Se concentrations of 1.0 ± 0.10 or 8.9 ± 2.7 μg/L Se (in triplicate) and three limnocorrals were untreated controls (background mean aqueous Se = 0.12 ± 0.03 μg/L). Benthic macroinvertebrates were collected throughout and at the end of the exposure period using artificial substrates to determine density, dry biomass, diversity, and taxa richness at the family level. Reproductively mature female fathead minnows (added on d 33 of the study) were collected throughout and at the end of the exposure period. After 77 d, Chironomidae and Gammaridae densities and biomass were significantly lower in the 8.9 μg/L Se treatment relative to the 1.0 μg/L Se treatment and the control. Invertebrate diversity (measured as Shannon’s and Simpson’s indices) significantly declined in the 1.0 μg/L and 8.9 μg/L Se treatments relative to the control (0.12 μg/L Se group). Fulton’s condition factor for fathead minnow was significantly less in the 8.9 μg/L treatment compared to 0.12 and 1.0 μg/L Se experimental groups. The results of this study indicated that exposure to relatively low aqueous selenite concentrations can negatively affect invertebrate density and biomass, as well as fish condition. More research is necessary to characterize the risk of selenite exposure to aquatic invertebrates under realistic field conditions, and future risk assessments may need to consider reduced food availability as a factor that may impair the health of higher trophic level organisms in areas with elevated selenite.

A study on ecolabeling and Life Cycle Assessment for food products in Indonesia: Potential application to improve the competitiveness of the tea industry

The increasing customer awareness and supporting regulation on environmentally-friendly products around the globe has fostered the need for revealing environmental performance information on their label, using an instrument called ecolabel. Ecolabeling system requires a life cycle consideration for the product, and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) serves as a method to perform the assessment for the entire product’s life cycle. In the field of food industry, specifically the tea industry, a 2014 report by International Institute for Sustainable Development showed a growing influence of ecolabel in the global market. Ecolabel and LCA become important tools for improving product competitiveness. Meanwhile, tea as one of Indonesia’s main commodity has faced a challenging competition in the international market as indicated by decreasing export—despite increasing global demand—in recent year. This study reviews the ecolabeling system in Indonesia and LCA for food products. Furthermore, this study also investigates the potential application of ecolabel and LCA to improve the competitiveness of the tea industry. According to the study, the implementation of ecolabeling for tea still faces some challenging issues due to the supporting certification scheme and customer perspective. On the contrary, research on LCA for food products provides a promising application to improve tea product competitiveness. Therefore, this study recommended that, while educating people more toward ecolabeling, research on LCA should be continuously conducted to support the implementation of ecolabel in the long term.

Biodiversity Protection through Networks of Voluntary Sustainability Standard Organizations?

This paper explores the potential for voluntary sustainability standards (VSS) organizations to contribute to policy-making on biodiversity protection by examining their biodiversity policies, total standard compliant area, proximity to biodiversity hotspots, and the networks and partnerships they have in place that can support policy-making on biodiversity protection. The analysis undertaken is based on Social Network Analysis data, in combination with information from the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) Standards and Biodiversity Review and the International Trade Centre (ITC) Standards Map on the focus and operation of VSS organizations. The significance of agriculture-focused private governance for global biodiversity policy and their relationship towards other forms of nongovernmental, governmental, and inter-governmental biodiversity policy are examined and described. We argue that, at present, a number of key agriculture-focused VSS organizations are important policy actors to address biodiversity because of their elaborate biodiversity policies, total compliant areas, and proximity to biodiversity hotspots. However, at present, most of these VSS organizations have relatively few ties with relevant governmental and inter-governmental biodiversity policymakers. The actor composition of their inter-organizational networks currently reflects a focus on nongovernmental rather than governmental organizations while substantively they focus more on development than on environmental protection issues.

How to measure national energy sustainability performance: An Icelandic case-study

The development of sustainable energy systems is now firmly on the international agenda. Nations and their governments must strive to implement energy policies that facilitate sustainable development for society. Although Iceland is highly ranked by currently available energy indices, controversy has surrounded the development of previously undeveloped areas for power development and Iceland now finds itself at a crossroads regarding future energy developments. Well-designed indices for measuring the sustainability of energy systems can help policy-makers make the best choices for their national circumstances. However, often indicators and indices suffer from limitations and it may not be advisable to implement indicators designed for global comparisons at local, regional or even national scales. Nonetheless, indices such as those developed by the World Economic Council (WEC), World Economic Forum (WEF) for ranking countries and indicator sets such as the International Atomic Energy Agency's Energy (IAEA) Energy Indicators for Sustainable Development (EISD) may still be useful guides to decision-makers when designing their own national measurement tools provided the indicators fulfil certain criteria. Through interviews with key energy practitioners and decision-makers in energy development in Iceland and an extensive literature review, we identify the challenges faced in sustainable energy development in Iceland. We assess the suitability of indices proposed by organisations like the WEC, WEF and IAEA for reliably measuring the sustainability of energy development in individual countries like Iceland. We find that the indices and indicators evaluated suffer from commonly cited limitations including lack of methodological transparency, misalignment with sustainable development principles, inappropriate metrics, lack of clear targets, failure to capture socio-ecological impacts at different scales and failure to meet the interest of the target audience. Hence, they do not facilitate effective measurement of progress towards sustainable energy development for individual nations. Important issues relating to energy affordability and equity, environmental sustainability, efficiency, energy security and renewables are neglected by the indicators in all cases, although it should be said that the IAEA indicators are more comprehensive in their coverage of energy efficiency, renewables and environmental sustainability. In each case the indicators are at best only partially relevant to the Icelandic case, due to the country's unique energy mix, environment, economic structure and size and standard of living. By identifying their limitations and by examining them in light of criteria for good indicators as recommended by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), we contribute to the discussion on the value and validity of indicators, indices and frameworks. Knowing the potential pitfalls, we are in a better position to design a more effective measurement tool. We conclude that a more comprehensive, multi-level, context-specific measurement tool would be needed for measuring national energy sustainability in Iceland and would require methods that allow broad public participation.

Harmonizing the Electricity Sectors Across North America: Recommendations and Action Items from Two RFF/US Department of Energy Workshops

To address a number of the recommendations included in the US Department of Energy’s (DOE’s) Quadrennial Energy Review (QER), Resources for the Future — in concert with DOE, two partners (the International Institute for Sustainable Development and Instituto Tecnologico Autonomo de Mexico) and two host institutions (Boise State University and the University of New Mexico) — held two workshops in October 2015, looking at the electricity sectors in the United States, Canada, and Mexico. The workshops had several purposes: first, to identify gaps, best practices, and inconsistencies with regulations and electricity system planning across the three large North American countries; second, to inform the creation of legal, regulatory, and policy roadmaps for harmonizing regulations and planning; and third, to bring together individuals who can help implement greater harmonization, and also others who can offer helpful input. The two workshops examined policies, regulations, and planning associated with the electricity sector, and within this sector, environmental regulations (for air pollution, greenhouse gases, and renewables), and regulations and processes associated with the operation and planning of the electricity system, including generation and transmission. This paper summarizes recommendations and observations of workshop participants. The recommendations include action items for DOE, other government agencies in all three countries, research groups, academics, stakeholders, and others, to move toward greater harmonization of policy and planning affecting the electricity system.

The Capability Approach and Sustainability

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Acknowledgements Many thanks to the library of the International Institute for Sustainable Development for providing a copy of Sen's manuscript for his keynote address at the international conference on ‘Transition to Sustainability’ in Tokyo, May 2000. Further, the editors are grateful for the support provided by the research project ‘GeNECA: Fair Sustainable Development based on the Capability Approach’ (www.geneca.ufz.de). GeNECA is a three-year project (2010–2013) funded by the German Ministry for Science and Research as part of the funding program ‘Economics for Sustainability’ (FKZ 01UN1015A). Notes However, recently Eric Neumayer (2012) provided a splendid piece of empirical work. More empirical results should be forthcoming when the data from a recent survey in the German Socio-Economic Panel are analyzed—for upcoming results, check http://www.geneca.ufz.de. See http://www.wellbebe.be/.

Circumpolar Young Leaders Find Common Ground at IPY 2012

W IMMENSE ECOLOGICAL AND INDUSTRIAL change in the circumpolar Arctic, the voices of Northerners themselves, especially youth, are often lost. While northern elders saw the transition from nomadic life to community life, the current generation of northern youth is seeing the transition from a few visitors in the isolated Arctic to increasing large-ship traffic in the developing Arctic. The capacity of Arctic communities to deal with climatic changes depends on the ability of youth to cope with varying social and economic circumstances (Sydneysmith et al., 2010). With many strong, northern voices as role models, young leaders are emerging across the circumpolar Arctic. Recently, under the guidance of the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) and Schools on Board, 13 Circumpolar Young Leaders had the opportunity to bring their voices forward at the April 2012 International Polar Year Conference From Knowledge to Action, held in Montreal.

An Analysis of the Rio +20 Discourse Using an Ability Expectation Lens

The aim of the study was to content analyse documents related to Rio +20 through an ability expectation lens and to evaluate the impact of the exhibited ability expectations on marginalized groups, specifically people with disabilities. An ability expectations implies that certain abilities are seen essential within a discourse (Wolbring 2011). Content analysis of academic and grey literature sources covering Rio+20 using the software’s Atlas-ti and knowledge share. Academic databases being used include EBSCO; 275 articles have been found relevant (English language, not books and PDF available). Non-academically sources included the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) Reporting Services and Google. Data collection continued until the end of August 2012 in order to include the literature post-dating Rio+20, which offers a rich source of newspaper articles. From the articles we can identify certain ability expectations (e.g. the ability to consume, the ability to work, etc.) which come with certain consequences, such as the lack of development in certain economies due to exclusion. Exclusion can be detrimental to a population, leading to issues with health, poverty, and education. The authors submit that this may lead to further marginalization of certain groups. This marginalization can lead to even greater health, poverty and education issues for these marginalized groups. Using the ableism lens reveals ability preferences, which may in turn reveal the risk of marginalization and discrimination. This research is beginning to reveal the potential issues which may arise in the climate change discourse.

Greening the United Nations Charter: World Politics in the Anthropocene

A revised version of this working paper has been published as: Biermann, Frank. 2012. Greening the United Nations Charter: World Politics in the Anthropocene. Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development. May / June 2012. A constitutional turn is needed to bring the UN system in line with the urgent needs of planetary stewardship and earth system governance in the 21st century. Yet how this could be organized in practice remains a challenge and subject to political and scholarly debate. This paper contributes to this debate by outlining four reforms of the UN system that would advance global decision-making by addressing major shortcomings in the current system: Lack of integration of economic and environmental policies in the UN system; institutional fragmentation and weakness of the environmental pillar of sustainable development; lack of high-level regulatory competence and oversight regarding areas beyond national jurisdiction; and insufficient integration of scientific insights into political decision-making. The reforms proposed would together create an Earth Alliance in the UN system, consisting of a high-level UN Sustainable Development Council, a World Environment Organization, a UN Trusteeship Council for Areas beyond National Jurisdiction, and an UN Global Environmental Assessment Commission.

Fossil Fuels - At What Cost? Government Support for Upstream Oil and Gas Activities in Russia

The report represents the first inventory of subsidies to upstream oil and gas activities in Russia according to an international methodology developed by the Global Subsidies Initiative of the International Institute for Sustainable Development. At the federal level, the paper identifies 30 such subsidy schemes in 2009 and 2010; and quantifies the value of 17 of these, amounting in 2009 to US$ 8.1 billion and in 2010 to US$ 14.4 billion. The report also considers possible future trends in oil and gas subsidies in Russia. The report concludes with a discussion of economic and environmental outcomes of the existing subsidies against their policy objectives. The study aims to increase transparency of government subsidies to fossil fuels in Russia and provide a basis for an informed debate about opportunities to “rationalize and phase out over the medium term inefficient fossil-fuel subsidies that encourage wasteful consumption” in accordance with the commitments Russia has undertaken as a member of G-20 and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and in view of the country’s accession to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. The report is addressed to responsible agencies in the Russian government, academia, business and civil society organizations, and international stakeholders.