International Food Safety Research Articles

Food safety regulation and its implication on Chinese vegetable exports

Growing concerns with the application of highly toxic pesticides and the growing world demands for food direct our attentions to the food safety as well as to the global arrangement of food production. In China, expansion of its vegetable exports brought the attention of policy planners to the international food safety regulations. This paper reported the findings from the investigation about a relationship between trades of food and food safety, by focusing on the relationship between Chinese vegetable exports and the maximum residue limits of pesticides (MRLs) regulation set by the importing countries and exporting country. The revealed trade’s behavior showed that impacts of MRLs should be seen through two types of information, one was the extent of coverage of regulation measured by the number of pesticides placed under the control, and the other was the regulated residue levels. Probably because the achieved vegetable production growth was supported by the extensive use of many kinds of pesticides, the expanding of the number of regulated pesticides in importing markets, was more likely to act as a barrier to China’s vegetable exports compared to the effect of stringency increase of MRLs level. Importing countries’ GDP reflecting the market potential showed significantly positive effects on Chinese vegetable exports, while the effects of vegetable production and tariff rate on exports were weakened after years of improvement of productivity and worldwide policy environment. Our results verified the export promoting effect of stringent regulations in exporting country on its trade. These findings strongly suggested that Chinese authorities need to move fast to catch-up to the growing concerns of international importers both from relevant policy planning and implementing, to capture economic growth in the medium-long term.

A review of Chinese fish trade involving the development and limitations of food safety strategy

The export growth of Chinese fisheries is reviving significantly after a chain of food safety incidents in 2007, but regulatory aspects associated with the scale and rapidity of this revival are far from optimal. Quality and safety problems of Chinese fishery products have remained as a primary impediment to consolidating the country's trade competitiveness in major foreign markets. Continual recurrence of safety scandals due to enterprises' wrongful production and processing practices has frustrated the importers' confidence in Chinese food safety control efficacy. This article attempts to offer some insights into the principal development dilemmas inherent in China's fisheries economic plan to explain the root of government regulatory failures. It further analyzes the opportunities and channels for Chinese government to graduate from a responsive approach tailored to foreign demands, and to take a more cooperative instance when dealing with ever-increasing international food safety standards related to fisheries.

食品安全の国際基準策定における「科学」と「科学以外の要素」の位置づけの再考

食品安全の国際基準策定における「科学」と「科学以外の要素」の位置づけの再考

Keeping mycotoxins away from the food: Does the existence of regulations have any impact in Africa?

ABSTRACTFollowing the discovery of aflatoxins in the early 1960s, there have been many studies leading to the uncovering of many mycotoxins and the understanding of associated health effects in animals and humans. Consequently, there has been a global increase in the number of countries with mycotoxin regulations in foods. However, many African countries have only regulations for aflatoxins (or a few other mycotoxins) in specific foods, or no regulations at all. This paper critically reviews the challenges thwarting the establishment of mycotoxin regulations and their impacts on human dietary mycotoxin exposure in Africa. Mycotoxin regulatory limits for different countries are compared with mycotoxin tolerable daily intakes established by international food safety bodies taking into account consumption patterns. The agrarian setup, food insecurity, and mycotoxin analytical challenges in African countries are discussed; and more feasible mycotoxin dietary exposure reduction strategies are proposed.

Developing a government strategy to meet international standards of food safety across the hospitality industry

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to identify international best practice regarding food safety management across the food chain, with particular reference to hospitality businesses. It looks at the role of government strategy in the pursuit of a flexible approach that can be adapted and adopted by a diverse range of businesses. It is the first article in a Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes theme issue, presenting a comprehensive government strategy for improving food safety management standards across the hospitality industry. Design/methodology/approach – A summary of key literature is presented alongside an in-depth analysis of international guidance for governments attempting to promote the uptake of hazard analysis critical control point-based food safety management systems. It is set within the context of recent Abu Dhabi Food Control Authority initiatives. Findings – The management of food safety across all sectors of the food industry and prevention of food-borne diseases represent a major challenge worldwide. International guidance for governments has been produced by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), but few governments have the resources to implement this effectively. Within Abu Dhabi, a four-year project was launched to support the hospitality sector in meeting international best practice standards, following guidance from FAO and extensive international benchmarking. Originality/value – This article brings together a theoretical and practical discussion of how the government can facilitate international food safety standards within the hospitality industry, with a unique insight into a practical application of strategy development and implementation at government level. It will be of value to practitioners, researchers, policymakers and other stakeholders involved in the food industry.

Research on Food Safety Guarantee System Based on AHP

All kinds of food safety accidents occurred frequently in recent years, the main reason is that food safety system construction failed to synchronize with the internet, this study sets up food safety technical standard system based on the AHP evaluation model, learns lessons from food safety related bulletin, revises for the food industry standard, innovates from technology and regulatory reform, so as to promote international food safety system construction.

Transformation of Value Chain Governance: The Impact of Food Safety Regime on Fishery Sector of Kerala

Considering the theoretical aspects of Global Value Chain, this study has attempted to empirically validate the concepts by taking up a case study of Kerala in India. While examining the evolution of value chain dynamics, the study has found that different types of coordinations have governed the seafood export chain of Kerala from 1950s onwards. The evolution of Kerala's seafood industry from mid-1950s to late 1960s provides a good example of how a captive form of coordination can evolve towards the inter-firm governance structure. From early-1970s, the value chain governance structure shifted from the captive form to more or less a modular one. The vertical disintegration and division of labour have been observed to be the striking features of the sector from 1970s onwards. Subsequently, a large number of new entrants were attracted to the business until the mid-1990s. In the recent international food safety regulatory regime, the seafood value chain has been completely transformed. Concentration and consolidation are taking place at the processing node of the chain, wherein the number of exporters has come down and professional players are upgrading their positions in the value chain. The pre-processing node of the chain is getting integrated to the processing sector, causing a major transformation of the existing value chain. The study has categorically proved that the international food policies can restructure the entire fish commodity chain of a developing country.

The emergence of international food safety standards and guidelines: understanding the current landscape through a historical approach.

Following the Second World War, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) teamed up to construct an International Codex Alimentarius (or 'food code') which emerged in 1963. The Codex Committee on Food Hygiene (CCFH) was charged with the task of developing microbial hygiene standards, although it found itself embroiled in debate with the WHO over the nature these standards should take. The WHO was increasingly relying upon the input of biometricians and especially the International Commission on Microbial Specifications for Foods (ICMSF) which had developed statistical sampling plans for determining the microbial counts in the final end products. The CCFH, however, was initially more focused on a qualitative approach which looked at the entire food production system and developed codes of practice as well as more descriptive end-product specifications which the WHO argued were 'not scientifically correct'. Drawing upon historical archival material (correspondence and reports) from the WHO and FAO, this article examines this debate over microbial hygiene standards and suggests that there are many lessons from history which could shed light upon current debates and efforts in international food safety management systems and approaches.

Europe as a global regulator? The limits of EU influence in international food safety standards

ABSTRACTThe European Union (EU) is often depicted as global regulatory power. This contribution contends that this depiction, while not unfounded, is misleading. It aims to clarify under what conditions the EU converts its regulatory capability into influence. Specifically, it seeks to resolve the puzzle of the EU's poor performance in the setting of global food safety standards within the Codex Alimentarius Commission. The argument is deceptively simple. The EU's limited influence is due to it being a preference outlier. In a context where standards can be agreed by voting, the stringency of the EU's regulations, rather than being a source of influence, is a liability. This extreme case demonstrates that the EU's ability to exercise international influence is affected by the constellation of preferences and the distribution of power. This contribution, therefore, contributes to the emerging literature that contends that the EU's international effectiveness can be understood only with explicit reference to the international context within which it is operating.

S almonella sp. Occurrence in Minced Meat, Meat Preparations and Mechanically Separated Meat in Poland

The aim of this study was to determine the occurrence of Salmonella sp. in raw meat products such as porcine and bovine minced meat, meat preparations including chopped, gourmet and grill porcine meat, bovine gourmet and stew meat, poultry products such as gourmet and chopped turkey, mechanically separated poultry meat and porcine fresh sausages (n = 1,943). Salmonella sp. occurred in 2.9% of the tested products. The bacteria were absent in bovine and porcine minced meat (0/300) and bovine meat preparations (0/55); whereas, Salmonella sp. occurred in 0.4% (1/260) of porcine meat preparations and in 0.7% (2/305) of fresh sausages. The highest prevalence of the pathogen was noted in poultry products such as poultry meat preparations (5.5%, 50/913) and mechanically separated meat (3.6%, 4/110). Practical Applications The present study demonstrates that poultry meat preparations and mechanically separated poultry meat are more frequent carriers of Salmonella sp. than porcine and bovine meat products. Thus, special attention shall be given to hygienic conditions and appropriate thermal treatment during the processing of poultry meat in meat processing plants and households to avoid cross-contamination. The information contained in this article may also be useful for national and international food safety regulatory officials.

A Through-chain Analysis of Food Safety Hazards and Control Measures Associated with the Production and Supply of Seed Sprouts for Human Consumption

Background: Seed sprouts contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms, such as Salmonella spp. and Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) present an unacceptable health risk to consumers. An outbreak that occurred in Australia during 2005 and 2006 due to the consumption of alfalfa sprouts contaminated with Salmonella Oranienburg resulted in 141 infected cases, and cost an estimated $1.19 million to the Australian community. In Japan in 1996, consumption of radish sprouts contaminated with STEC O157:H7 affected more than 10,000 individuals. The outbreak of E. coli O104:H4 linked to the consumption of fenugreek sprouts that occurred in Europe in 2011 was an unprecedented foodborne outbreak. More than 4,000 individuals were infected by STEC O104:H4. Among them, 908 developed haemorrhagic uraemic syndrome (HUS), and 50 died of STEC infection. This demonstrates the potential food safety risk arising from seed sprouts and that the consequences can be devastating. Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) initiated the development of a primary production and processing standard for seed sprouts in 2009 to enhance the safety of seed sprouts produced and sold in Australia. After extensive consultations with the State and Territory food safety regulators, and a thorough investigation of the Australian Grey Literature European Journal of Nutrition & Food Safety, 4(4): 424-428, 2014 425 industry practices in producing seed sprouts for human consumption, a technical paper was prepared to inform the design of potential risk mitigation measures for a national food safety standard on seed sprout production. This technical paper described the Australian seed sprout industry, depicted the steps involved in the production of seed sprouts for human consumption, and provided an analysis of potential food safety hazards that could occur during seed sprout production and processing. A food safety standard for the production and sale of seed sprouts in Australia was finalised in November 2011. This extended abstract describes the key aspects of the technical paper. Aims: To provide technical and scientific information to support risk management decisions aimed at maximizing the safety of seed sprouts produced for human consumption in Australia. Study Design: A through-chain qualitative food safety risk analysis. Place and Duration of Study: FSANZ, Canberra, Australia, between July 2009 and January 2010. Methodology: This through-chain risk analysis was prepared upon a comprehensive review of literature available at the time on: investigations of foodborne outbreaks associated with consumption of seed sprouts; surveys of microbial contamination of seed sprouts; specific publications on crop production, seed harvest, post-harvest processing and storage of seeds; production of seed sprouts; risk assessments on seed sprouts; and regulatory guidelines published by Australian and international food safety regulatory authorities on seed sprouts. Members of the FSANZ project team conducted field studies of sprout production, lucerne crop production, lucerne seed processing, wholesale and retail sale of seed sprouts. A survey was conducted on the variety, volume and value of sprouts produced, source and quantity of seeds used to produce sprouts for human consumption, trend of consumption of seed sprouts in Australia, as well as the size and the location of sprout producers in Australia. Stakeholders were consulted through a FSANZ standard development committee with participants from State and Territory food safety regulators, peak sprout producer industry bodies, seed producers and seed processors, major food retailers, and consumer representatives. The through-chain analysis of food safety hazards associated with the production and processing of seed sprouts was prepared in line with the principles of hazard analysis critical control points (HACCP).

Codex Alimentarius Commission at 50: Major Achievements and Challenges Ahead

Executive Summary: For 50 years, the Codex Alimentarius Commission, established by the United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO), has worked collaboratively to develop and adopt international science-based food safety and quality standards and guidelines to protect the health of consumers and ensure fair practices in the international food trade. During that time, the Codex Alimentarius Commission also established a rigorous risk analysis paradigm comprised of risk assessment, risk management and risk communication activities, which has helped ensure the integrity and uptake of food standards by domestic food regulators worldwide.

Measurement of Different Types of Potato Chips by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometer

Potato chips are considered as one of the most popular and preferable children’s foods in Saudi Arabia. The aim of this study was to examine the concentration of 12 chemical elements (i.e. Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn, As, Se and Al) in different types of potato chips. Samples were analyzed using an Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometer (ICP-OES). The average concentrations of analyzed elements in all potato chips were examined and compared with the recommendations of international organizations concerned with food safety. From the human health point of view, this investigation showed that there was no possible health risk to consumers due to the intake of potato chips.

International Trade Standards for Commodities and Products Derived from Animals: The Need for a System that Integrates Food Safety and Animal Disease Risk Management

A case is made for greater emphasis to be placed on value chain management as an alternative to geographically based disease risk mitigation for trade in commodities and products derived from animals. The geographic approach is dependent upon achievement of freedom in countries or zones from infectious agents that cause so-called transboundary animal diseases, while value chain-based risk management depends upon mitigation of animal disease hazards potentially associated with specific commodities or products irrespective of the locality of production. This commodity-specific approach is founded on the same principles upon which international food safety standards are based, viz. hazard analysis critical control points (HACCP). Broader acceptance of a value chain approach enables animal disease risk management to be combined with food safety management by the integration of commodity-based trade and HACCP methodologies and thereby facilitates 'farm to fork' quality assurance. The latter is increasingly recognized as indispensable to food safety assurance and is therefore a pre-condition to safe trade. The biological principles upon which HACCP and commodity-based trade are based are essentially identical, potentially simplifying sanitary control in contrast to current separate international sanitary standards for food safety and animal disease risks that are difficult to reconcile. A value chain approach would not only enable more effective integration of food safety and animal disease risk management of foodstuffs derived from animals but would also ameliorate adverse environmental and associated socio-economic consequences of current sanitary standards based on the geographic distribution of animal infections. This is especially the case where vast veterinary cordon fencing systems are relied upon to separate livestock and wildlife as is the case in much of southern Africa. A value chain approach would thus be particularly beneficial to under-developed regions of the world such as southern Africa specifically and sub-Saharan Africa more generally where it would reduce incompatibility between attempts to expand and commercialize livestock production and the need to conserve the subcontinent's unparalleled wildlife and wilderness resources.

Planning for rapid response to outbreakers of animal diseases transmissible to humans via food

Planning for rapid response to outbreaks of foodborne zoonoses requires coordination and intersectoral collaboration, making the process inherently complex. Guidance documents have been published by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) on the topics of foodborne outbreak investigation, establishing food safety emergency response plans, applying risk analysis principles during food safety emergencies, and developing national food recall systems. These guides should be used as resources by national authorities to develop national plans which should each reference the other in order to maintain consistency at the country level. FAO and WHO, together with the World Organisation for Animal Health (O1E), are the international organisations responsible at the global level for the health of people and animals and for food safety and security. As such, these organisations need to continue to work together to develop an intersectoral mechanism to conduct robust and timely joint risk assessments in the face of foodborne outbreaks and other food safety emergencies. Three international instruments have the potential to aid countries in their preparedness to face outbreaks of foodborne zoonoses and organise subsequent response efforts: the International Food Safety Authorities Network (INFOSAN), the newly enhanced Global Early Warning System for Major Animal Diseases, including Zoonoses (GLEWS+), and the FAO Emergency Prevention System for Food Safety (EMPRES Food Safety).

Measuring the effectiveness of the HACCP Food Safety Management System

The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) is a Food Safety Management System (FSMS) that is recognized in the international food safety community as a world wide guideline for controlling food borne safety hazards. Nevertheless, the availability of a diagnostic instrument to assess the performance and effectiveness of the FSMS is rather restricted; therefore, the food sector needs an instrument to measure the effectiveness of FSMS. Based on the HACCP objectives identified in the literature, in this research, HACCP effectiveness is defined as the degree of achieving its objectives. A measurement instrument is developed and then empirically validated through collecting preliminary data from 335 Greek food enterprises. After testing the assumptions of multivariate analysis, Exploratory Factor Analysis as well as first and second order Confirmatory Factor Analysis are applied. This study reveals the three-dimensional nature of the HACCP objectives (hazard identification, hazard assessment and hazard control). Further analysis of the data also reveals a valid latent factor reflecting the successful achievement of the HACCP objectives, namely “HACCP effectiveness”. This measurement instrument can be used by a food company as a self assessment tool and a benchmarking tool. In doing so, suitable strategies can be selected in order for a food company to allocate resources, increase HACCP effectiveness and improve its product safety.

Scientification of Politics or Politicization of Science: Reassessing the Limits of the Codex Alimentarius Commission

The proliferating food safety regulatory initiatives at domestic, international, and transnational levels by various actors with different perspectives have raised concerns for their important public health, international trade, and other implications. Standing as the hub of international food safety lawmaking, the Codex faces serious criticisms of its scientific soundness, legitimacy, transparency, and accountability. This paper explores the limits of Codex lawmaking structure and processes by examining whether its institutional design is adequate in terms of producing good governance. Food safety is an area of international law where political and cultural fragmentation collides with deep market integration and trade liberalization. Through a thorough analysis of the recent ractopamine dispute in the context of multilateral cooperation failure and the debates between technocracy and democracy models of legitimacy, this paper however emphasizes the forgotten role of procedural legitimacy in the current discourse, particularly mechanisms for avoiding conflicts of interest and fostering transparency.

Companies' Opinions and Acceptance of Global Food Safety Initiative Benchmarks after Implementation

International attention has been focused on minimizing costs that may unnecessarily raise food prices. One important aspect to consider is the redundant and overlapping costs of food safety audits. The Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI) has devised benchmarked schemes based on existing international food safety standards for use as a unifying standard accepted by many retailers. The present study was conducted to evaluate the impact of the decision made by Walmart Stores (Bentonville, AR) to require their suppliers to become GFSI compliant. An online survey of 174 retail suppliers was conducted to assess food suppliers' opinions of this requirement and the benefits suppliers realized when they transitioned from their previous food safety systems. The most common reason for becoming GFSI compliant was to meet customers' requirements; thus, supplier implementation of the GFSI standards was not entirely voluntary. Other reasons given for compliance were enhancing food safety and remaining competitive. About 54 % of food processing plants using GFSI benchmarked schemes followed the guidelines of Safe Quality Food 2000 and 37 % followed those of the British Retail Consortium. At the supplier level, 58 % followed Safe Quality Food 2000 and 31 % followed the British Retail Consortium. Respondents reported that the certification process took about 10 months. The most common reason for selecting a certain GFSI benchmarked scheme was because it was widely accepted by customers (retailers). Four other common reasons were (i) the standard has a good reputation in the industry, (ii) the standard was recommended by others, (iii) the standard is most often used in the industry, and (iv) the standard was required by one of their customers. Most suppliers agreed that increased safety of their products was required to comply with GFSI benchmarked schemes. They also agreed that the GFSI required a more carefully documented food safety management system, which often required improved company food safety practices and increased employee training. Adoption of a GFSI benchmarked scheme resulted in fewer audits, i.e., one less per year. An educational opportunity exists to acquaint retailers and suppliers worldwide with the benefits of having an internationally recognized certification program such as that recognized by the GFSI.

Assessment of Tetracycline, Lead and Cadmium Residues in Frozen Chicken Vended in Lagos and Ibadan, Nigeria

This study determined the levels of tetracycline and heavy metals (lead and cadmium) levels in frozen chicken. One hundred frozen chicken muscle samples were sourced from major markets in Lagos and Ibadan (fifty samples each). The samples were analyzed using high power liquid chromatography (HPLC) for tetracycline residue determination while atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) was used to determine the levels of lead and cadmium residues in the samples. Mean concentrations of tetracycline residue levels in the frozen chicken sampled ranged from 1.1589-1.0463ppm which is higher than the maximum residue limit set by international food safety agencies. Pb contents were higher in chicken muscles sampled from markets in Ibadan (0.0227 +/- 0.0069 microg dL(-2)) than Lagos (0.0207 +/- 0.0082 microg dL(-1)), while Cd levels were 0.0013 microg dL(-1) higher than in the Lagos samples (0.0065 +/- 0.0026 microg dL(-1)). These values were within maximum residue limits. There were no significant differences (p < 0.05) in levels of tetracycline, lead and cadmium levels from the two market locations (Lagos and Ibadan) and parts (wings and thigh muscles). However, significant differences occurred in tetracycline and Pb levels in frozen chicken sourced from Cotonou. Though not significant, tetracycline contents in the thigh muscles of the frozen chicken samples was higher than that of the wings muscles and this was attributed to the site of administration of antibiotic injection and failure to observe the pre-slaughter withdrawal period by the farmers. This study is of public health importance as the presence of these residues above the maximum residue limit in frozen chicken predisposes consumers to drug resistance, allergic reactions and poisoning as a result of toxicity.

Willingness of farmers to participate in food traceability systems: improving the level of food safety

In order to solve frequently emerging food safety problems and adapt to the developing trends in the international food safety field, the Chinese government is establishing and developing food traceability systems. Whether or not food traceability systems can guarantee food safety is a problem well worth discussing. Hence, we constructed a theoretical model to explore the effect of incentives in a food traceability system in order to improve food safety levels. The following results were obtained: enhancing the effectiveness of a food traceability system, increasing the payment to farmers who supply safe agricultural products and strengthening the penalty for unsafe food supply actions are necessary conditions to improve the level of food safety. How to encourage farmers to use food traceability systems is another problem explored in our investigation. Based on a field survey on the willingness of vegetable growers to participate using a vegetable traceability system in Beijing, the first city in China to develop such a system, we used a descriptive statistics and a binary logistic regression model to investigate the factors which dominate the decision on the part of farmers to participate in a food safety system. The results indicate that i: younger farmers are more likely to get involved in a food traceability system than older farmers, ii: income from non-agricultural activities decreases the willingness of farmers to participate, iii: the higher the cost-benefit ratio of growing vegetables, the more likely for farmers to engage in a food traceability system, iv: farmers with a great concern for food safety information have a high propensity to participate and v: increased penalties against unsafe food supply actions and high-risk expectation are adverse incentives. In contrast, high-price expectation is a positive incentive for farmers to participate, while agricultural training, government subsidies and being part of an industrial organization will significantly strengthen the confidence of farmers to participate in a food safety system.