International Financial Support Research Articles

Women astronomers in Afghanistan need the world’s support

The return to power of the Taliban in Afghanistan makes women and girls outcasts in society, and their education illegal. However, they are clever and deserve to be taught and learn, and for that international (financial) support is needed.

Reorganizing Hospital Cancer Care In Nepal.

While mortality rates for major common cancers- of the lung, breast, stomach, ovary, and lymphomas-- have declined significantly in high-income countries over the last decade, comparable rates for these malignancies have not fallen in Nepal. The explanations for the high-income country mortality trends are multiple and certainly include incidence reductions, but better treatments are also contributory. How to bring to Nepal the global lessons in achieving better cancer care is uncertain. We need to create an environment of ideas and a powerful vision to meet the needs for better major cancer management for Nepalis. Broadly, the Nepalese challenges are in creating more accessible and affordable care of sufficiently high-quality to make a difference. Hospitals are the major places where these issues have to be considered. To address these challenges, we offer a vision and suggest here strategies of major organizational changes in: Innovative staffing models, emphasizing teamwork, with increases in responsibilities, activities and work force percentages of non-physician health professionals; Increased outpatient care and tele-health; 3.Creating and following evidence-based diagnostic pathway and treatment clinical practice guidelines and checklists; 4. Increased application of information technology tools, particularly electronic medical records; and 5. Service implementation research evaluating quality based on structure, process and outcomes of care. Developing such effective changes requires strong community linkages, local institutional-specific coalition initiatives and experimentation, and national and international collaborations and financial support to effect practical and data-based plans and budgets. Keywords: Guidelines; improving treatment; information technology tools; outpatient services; staffing models; tele-health.

The economic situation in Iraq. Is there a way out in the current crisis?

At present, the Iraqi economy is once again undergoing trials associated with an increase in unemployment, a drop in the standard of living of the population, especially in central and southern Iraq, as well as the almost complete dependence of budgetary revenues on fluctuating oil prices. This dependence on oil has left other important sectors of the country’s economy, such as agriculture and industry, in near collapse. Of course, the real political crisis in Iraq 3 should be viewed through economic indicators, given the country’s lack of a diversified economy. The revenues received from the sale of oil are not invested in the development of the necessary sectors of the economy or in innovations, but are distributed according to articles of domestic expenditures, including the maintenance of a large bureaucratic apparatus. When there is a shortage of income, in the event of an unfavorable price policy in the market, the government resorts to domestic and foreign borrowing. These steps induce the state to completely stop rebuilding what was destroyed during previous wars or to start developing other sectors of the economy.Against the background of the entire political and economic situation, the country’s financial sector is also going through hard times. The main products and services of the banks are focused on payroll projects, and they are also engaged in currency speculation in the auctions arranged by the Central Bank of Iraq. It also negatively affects the investment attractiveness of the country, since the receipt of «easy and fast money» by a financial institution practically eliminates the need for it to invest in the real sector of the economy, the principle of which is the basis, including Islamic financial institutions.In general, the economic picture of Iraq can be described in the following formulations. The country has the fourth proven crude oil reserves in the world, was the second largest producer of OPEC and the fourth largest producer in the world. The country has international financial organizations that provide international financial support (IMF, World Bank), including bilateral loans. There are more negative aspects, including large and almost widespread corruption, direct dependence of government revenues on oil exports, almost complete absence of non'oil sectors in the structure of economic sectors (especially the private sector), and a weak and limited banking sector. Of course, there is some hope that the White Paper for Economic Reforms 4 presented by the government of Mustafa al'Kadhimi, which identifies the main necessary reforms to restore the Iraqi economy, could become a certain benchmark for turning the current economic situation and the beginning of the necessary reforms. But on the eve of the elections, the political forces considered it in their own interests to oppose any reforms. In this regard, Iraq actually lost the opportunity to carry out full'fledged reforms, however, in our opinion, there is still little hope for recovery.

BEIRUT EXPLOSION AND CEDRE IMPLEMENTATION: THE LAST OPPORTUNITY FOR EFFECTIVE CORPORATE AND PUBLIC GOVERNANCE

In any nation across the world, effective governance involves improving the lives of all, providing value for new generations, consistent allocation of duties and functions, accountable decisions, providing quality of information, transparency and responsibility, good performance, a strong legal system, and above all developing sustainability on all levels. Governance is rooted and established based on the collaboration and coordination among nation’s governments, organizations, and people. The sluggishness in setting such governance goals as well as the incapability of many governments, like the Lebanese one, to develop and execute adequate legislative and institutional initiatives coupled with the absence of corporate governance knowledge, given that organizations remain connected to their elderly conventional method to manage their businesses that are based on nepotism, corruption legislation, and sectarian distribution, represent a crucial challenge for any reform and good governance endeavor. This paper aims to approach the need for Lebanon to reconsider new governance strategy and organizational and institutional reforms, especially, in conjunction with the severe economic crisis facing the country, the explosion of the port of Beirut on August 4, 2020, and the awaiting implementation of CEDRE project. The analysis revealed that moving to a new perspective in a complicated social and political environment, like Lebanon, involves multiple aspects. As a result, an in-depth implementation of a New Lebanese Public Governance in Lebanon along with political stabilization must lead to a progressive structural administrative reform and change which will also contribute to boosting confidence with the international community and speed up the international financial donation and support that will help Lebanon to heal its wounds and rise again. The defiance is to figure out if this could be another lost opportunity.

Democratic Republic of São Tomé

The COVID-19 pandemic is having a severe impact on São Tomé and Príncipe’s economy, exacerbating fiscal and external imbalances. Tourism activities and external remittances dropped sharply, while lockdown measures further deepened the recession. The authorities’ swift actions and unprecedented international financial support are helping the country weather the emergency. The economy began to reopen in the fall, but the outlook for 2021 remains challenging and subject to significant uncertainty.

INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORT AT THE REGIONAL LEVEL

The purpose of the article is to assess the practice of attracting international sources of financial support for public transportation at the regional level, to identify problems with insufficient effectiveness of the implementation of international financial support projects and the formation of solutions at various system levels. It is determined that the main sources of financing of transport entities are self-financing, lending, state and international financial support. The preconditions for the use of credit funds of international financial donors for financing public transport and the conditions for lending to transport entities are described. Peculiarities of public transport lending by way of implementation of the project "Ukraine Urban Public Transport" are analyzed, and it is highlighted that its purpose is to realize the strategic priorities of the transport industry, institutional reforms and informatization. It is clarified that the responsibility for the performance gaps under the project, defined in the assistance agreements, is allocated to the City Councils and / or public transport entities. An assessment of international financial support is made and the reasons for short receipt of funds by transport companies from international financial organizations are specified. The amount of losses on incomplete implementation of the plan of expenditures and provision of credits for the realization of projects in the transport sector of Ukraine is clarified. Inefficiency in finding additional sources of financing of the project "Ukraine Urban Public Transport" is justified due to the impossibility to allocate financial responsibility to a certain project group in case of delay in non-implementation of the project plan at all levels. The organizational and financial mechanism of providing international financing for urban public transport by the European Investment Bank is proposed. It is argued that the mentioned mechanism, in contrast to the existing ones, identifies control points for the flow of financial resources, which provides an opportunity to suggest ways to intensify control activities by observers of the European Investment Bank and the public. The main disadvantage of receiving financing from the European Investment Bank in the framework of the project "Ukraine Urban Public Transport" is identified: obligations to pay VAT to the State budget are allocated to the business entity of the transport sector. The problems of inefficiency of implementation of financing sources of international financial organizations (on the example of the European Investment Bank) are identified and the directions of their solution are offered. The need for coordination of bodies of state supervision at the regional level with the observers' control activity is identified to promote the efficient and meaningful use of international financial sources by economic entities in the transport sector. It is proposed to supplement the state and supranational control with public control functions through the following options for establishing cooperation: 1) interaction of public councils at local self-government bodies with independent observers of international organizations involving auditors of the Accounting Chamber; 2) control of the process of implementation of the credit project of important infrastructure projects, including public transportation, by public organizations of the regional level. Methodology. In accordance with the purpose, the following research methods were used: a systemic approach (in identifying the components of the organizational and financial mechanism of international financial projects and their relationship), methods of comparative and statistical analysis (in assessing the receipt of financial resources from international financial sources). Results. The problems of inefficiency of implementation of financing sources of international financial organizations (on the example of the European Investment Bank) are identified and the directions of their solution are offered. Practical implications. Improving efficiency of using the international sources of financial support at the regional level will contribute to the renewal of the rolling stock of urban public transport, ensure its sustainable operation and development, save jobs at utility enterprises, increase revenues of utility enterprises from the provision of transportation services to the population. Value/originality. The organizational and financial mechanism for providing international financial support for urban public transport by the EIB has been developed, which, unlike the existing ones, identifies control points for grant flows, providing an opportunity to suggest ways to intensify control activities by the EIB observers and the public.

Investment case for two-year post university speciality training in family medicine in Tajikistan: how much is needed for continuing and scaling up the improved education of family doctors?

BackgroundA new two-year Post University Specialty Training (PUST) programme in family medicine was introduced to improve the quality of postgraduate speciality medical education in Tajikistan. Postgraduate education of family doctors (FDs) needs to be urgently scaled up, as 38% of FD positions in Tajikistan remained unfilled in 2018. Moreover, the international financial support for the PUST programme is ending. This investment case assesses the minimum funding needed for the continuation and scale-up of PUST and establishes the rationale for the investment in the light of a recent evaluation.MethodsThe costs of the programme were calculated for 2018 and a scale-up forecast made for the period 2019–2023. The impact of the scale-up on the shortage of FDs was assessed. An evaluation using a Multiple Choice Questionnaire and Objective Structured Clinical Examination (OSCE) assessed and compared theoretical knowledge, clinical skills and competencies of PUST trained and conventionally trained FDs.ResultsThe annual costs of the programme were US$ 228,000 in 2018. The total investment needed for scaling up PUST from 31 new FDs in 2018 to 100 FD graduates each year by 2023 was US$ 802,000.However, when the retirement of FDs and population growth are considered, the scale-up will result only in maintaining the current level of FDs working and not solve the country’s FD shortage. The PUST FDs demonstrated significantly better clinical skills than the conventionally trained interns, scoring 60 and 45% of OSCE points, respectively. Theoretical knowledge showed a similar trend; PUST FDs answered 44% and interns 38% of the questions correctly.ConclusionsThe two-year PUST programme has clearly demonstrated it produces better skilled family doctors than the conventional one-year internship, albeit some enduring quality concerns do still prevail. The discontinuation of international support for PUST would be a major setback and risks potentially losing the benefits of the programme for family medicine and also other specialities. To guarantee the supply of adequately trained FDs and address the FD shortage, the PUST should be continued and scaled up. Therefore, it is essential that international support is extended and a gradual transition to sustainable national financing gets underway.

Global macroeconomic cooperation in response to the COVID-19 pandemic: a roadmap for the G20 and the IMF

The COVID-19 crisis has caused the greatest collapse in global economic activity since 1720. Some advanced countries have mounted a massive fiscal response, both to pay for disease-fighting action and to preserve the incomes of firms and workers until the economic recovery is under way. But there are many emerging market economies which have been prevented from doing what is needed by their high existing levels of public debt and—especially—by the external financial constraints which they face. We argue in the present paper that there is a need for international cooperation to allow such countries to undertake the kind of massive fiscal response that all countries now need, and that many advanced countries have been able to carry out. We show what such cooperation would involve. We use a global macroeconomic model to explore how extraordinarily beneficial such cooperation would be. Simulations of the model suggest that GDP in the countries in which extra fiscal support takes place would be around two and a half per cent higher in the first year, and that GDP in other countries in the world be more than one per cent higher. So far, such cooperation has been notably lacking, in striking contrast with what happened in the wake of the Global Financial Crisis in 2008. The necessary cooperation needs to be led by the Group of Twenty (G20), just as happened in 2008–9, since the G20 brings together the leaders of the world’s largest economies. This cooperation must also necessarily involve a promise of international financial support from the International Monetary Fund, otherwise international financial markets might take fright at the large budget deficits and current account deficits which will emerge, creating fiscal crises and currency crises and so causing such expansionary policies which we advocate to be brought to an end.

The Rio Branco Declaration: Assessing Progress Toward a Near-Term Voluntary Deforestation Reduction Target in Subnational Jurisdictions Across the Tropics

Voluntary commitments are playing an ever-greater role in environmental governance at all scales. In the years preceding the signing of the Paris Agreement in 2015, a flurry of non-state and state actors signed on to various declarations and commitments to reduce deforestation as one globally significant climate mitigation solution. This paper focuses on the Rio Branco Declaration (RBD) and the 30 first-order subnational jurisdictions located in Brazil, Indonesia, Mexico, and Peru that signed on to it between 2014 and 2018, committing to reduce deforestation 80% by 2020, conditional upon adequate financial support from the international community. We assess each study jurisdiction’s progress toward that commitment based on deforestation data, and examine some of the potential factors supporting or slowing progress, including the existence of commensurate targets within jurisdictions’ legal frameworks and the international financial support pledged to jurisdictions. We found that progress toward achieving the target was slow and likely unattainable in most jurisdictions outside of Brazil. Among the four jurisdictions likely to achieve the target under current deforestation trajectories, only Mato Grosso has a target within its legal framework that is more ambitious than the RBD target. We found that the international response to the RBD was sluggish and likely inadequate – with only one financial pledge made in direct response to the declaration and the majority of funding to support jurisdictional efforts coming from one source. We did not find a clear relationship between international finance pledged and progress toward the RBD deforestation target; however, more often, jurisdictions that received pledges earlier have made more progress. We explore what may explain individual jurisdictions’ performance with respect to the target, including specific jurisdictional circumstances, national context, and international support. We estimate that, if current deforestation trajectories continue, the RBD signatories in our study could contribute approximately 3.7% (0.65 GtCO2e) of the greenhouse gas emissions reduction needed to keep global warming at 1.5°C, compared with a potential 5.7% (0.98 GtCO2e) if they were to all meet the RBD target.

The Penetration of Italian Fascism in Nationalist China: Political Influence and Economic Legacy

During the interwar period, the Italian fascist and the Chinese nationalist governments established an unprecedented political and economic collaboration. Delegations of politicians, entrepreneurs and scholars travelled to opposite sides of the world to strengthen that relationship at a time when China greatly needed to structure internal economic reforms and obtain international financial and political support, while Italy was in search of political allies in order to avoid international isolation and identify new markets for its own industries. The strong bond between the two countries collapsed with the beginning of the Sino-Japanese War, during which they supported opposing sides. This research relies almost entirely on primary sources – documents, memoirs, correspondence and reports consulted at the historical archives of Banca d’Italia, UniCredit Banking Group and the Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs – to propose a comprehensive overview of that unprecedented experience.

The HIV epidemic in Latin America: a time to reflect on the history of success and the challenges ahead.

The HIV epidemic in Latin America: a time to reflect on the history of success and the challenges ahead.

UKRAINIAN-POLAND CROSS-BORDER COOPERATION : CURRENT SITUATION

The article analyzes the components of cross-border cooperation between Ukraine and Poland. The main directions of cooperation between the two States on a cross-border basis within the Euroregions are described. The article reveals the formation and development of Ukrainian-Polish cross-border cooperation. The author studies the formation of bilateral cooperation and analyzes the cooperation between Ukraine and Poland in the political, economic, trade and IT spheres. The theoretical aspects of cross-border cooperation between Ukraine and Poland. The state of international financial support for Ukraine cross-border cooperation projects. Identify priority directions of the state policy of cross-border cooperation of Ukraine.

MACROECONOMIC TOOLS FOR ENSURING RESILIENCE OF THE FINANCIAL CORPORATIONS SECTOR

Research the tools for ensuring resilience of the financial corporations sector is relevant, given the fact that the development of the world economy is increasingly subject to the shock influences, to which financial crises are imposed. The aim of the article is to identify and justify macroeconomic tools according to the directions for ensuring resilience of the financial corporations sector. The theoretical-methodological base of the article is scientific works of scientists and reports of international organizationsfor directions and tools for ensuring resilience of the financial corporations sector and the economy in general. The general approaches and research methods have been used at preparing the article: theoretical generalization, analysis, synthesis and system method. The use of these methods allowed to consider approaches of leading international audit companies to understand the concept “resilience of the financial corporations”. On this basis, there was suggested the author's definition of the concept “resilience of the financial corporations sector” and defined it essential characteristics. It was explained, that the process of ensuring resilience of the financial corporations sector involves the implementation of macroeconomic tools in accordance with the following areas: the introduction of economic stimulus packages, attractive lending conditions, tax and investment benefits, promoting innovation, development of compensation mechanisms, international financial support. The important attention in the study was paid to the role of the state in the process of implementing macroeconomic tools for ensuring resilience of the financial corporations sector. Attention is focused on the fact, that under shock influences the state should implement macroeconomic tools in line with current problems in the development of the financial corporations sector. This in turn will ensure its profitability at a level sufficient for normal functioning.

The Development of Small Enterprises During and After Crisis: Comparative Analysis of Greece and Poland

Purpose: The purpose of the paper is to offer a comparative analysis of the development of small enterprises in Greece and Poland in the period just after global financial crisis which turned into an economic and social crisis for some countries, as the Greek example. The paper aims to discuss differences and similarities of small enterprises in two countries that suffered to a different level of the economic crisis. Design/methodology/approach: The authors decided to adopt three quantitative measures determining the degree of development of these companies: the number of active enterprises, the number of employees and the contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The above measures were analyzed against the background of changes in the economic growth rate. Findings: Both countries were affected by the economic crisis but to a different level. Especially Greek economy suffered from the consequences of the austerity policy applied as a consequence of the agreement to obtain the international financial support. Poland on the contrary did not have to apply such an austerity program. Crisis consequences had severe consequences on the economy and negative effects on the GDP of these countries. Research limitations/implications: It should be noted that the presented results are based on quantitative methods, while the economic development also covers qualitative issues. Nevertheless, the analysis of data suggests the existence of a relationship between the adopted measures of small enterprises development and the value of GDP. Therefore, it indicates the need for further research, using more advanced methods of analysis. It is also worth expanding the research using qualitative methods. Originality/value: The paper contributes to the market failure theory in the area of macroeconomic business cycles. As the downswings because of crises influence on activity of enterprises, there is a need of appropriate government intervention. The analyzed examples suggest that higher level of monetary and credit policy in Poland seems to have a positive impact on the development of small enterprises in the analyzed space time. On the contrary, the austerity program in Greece might negatively affect the small companies.

Global Macroeconomic Cooperation in Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Roadmap for the G20 and the IMF

The COVID-19 crisis has caused the greatest collapse in global economic activity since 1720. Some advanced countries have mounted a massive fiscal response, both to pay for disease-fighting action and to preserve the incomes of firms and workers until the economic recovery is under way. But there are many emerging market economies which have been prevented from doing what is needed by their high existing levels of public debt and—especially—by the external financial constraints which they face. We argue in the present paper that there is a need for international cooperation to allow such countries to undertake the kind of massive fiscal response that all countries now need, and that many advanced countries have been able to carry out. We show what such cooperation would involve. We use a global macroeconomic model to explore how extraordinarily beneficial such cooperation would be. Simulations of the model suggest that GDP in the countries in which extra fiscal support takes place would be around two and a half per cent higher in the first year, and that GDP in other countries in the world be more than one per cent higher. So far, such cooperation has been notably lacking, in striking contrast with what happened in the wake of the Global Financial Crisis in 2008. The necessary cooperation needs to be led by the Group of Twenty (G20), just as happened in 2008–9, since the G20 brings together the leaders of the world’s largest economies. This cooperation must also necessarily involve a promise of international financial support from the International Monetary Fund, otherwise international financial markets might take fright at the large budget deficits and current account deficits which will emerge, creating fiscal crises and currency crises and so causing such expansionary policies which we advocate to be brought to an end.

Modelling the impacts of challenging 2030 DPRK’s GHGs mitigation targets on DPRK’s energy system

The DPRK ratified the Paris Agreement on 1st August 2016 and fully committed to achieving goals for reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) in its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) which was submitted on 3rd October 2016. The DPRK’s INDC includes a mitigation and an adaptation component. In the mitigation component, as unconditional contribution, DPRK intends to achieve with domestic resources the reduction of GHG emissions by 8% by 2030 as compared to Business as Usual (BAU) scenario. Moreover, the conditional contributions are measures that could be implemented if additional international financial support, technology transfer and capacity building are received. The national contribution could be increased up to 40% with international support. This paper focuses on these mitigation targets for DPRK by an interesting case study of GHG emissions for a 12 year period from 1990 to 2002. We proposed the DPRK’s GHGs mitigation model by analyzing the Irish TIMES (The Integrated MARKAL–EFOM System) energy systems modelling tool, and proved the technical availability of CO2-8 scenario delivering an 8% emissions reduction target by 2030. We then compared the scenario results in terms of changes in energy technology, the role of energy efficiency and renewable energy.

Historical development of climate change policies and the Climate Change Secretariat in Sri Lanka

The IPCC, 2014 report found that the roles institutions played in implementing coastal adaptation policies were yet understudied. In particular, limited research was done to examine the evolution of policies and institutional actions in small island nations. Partly to fill this gap, this study traces the historical development of climate change policies in Sri Lanka and the critical roles its main climate change policy institution played in engaging with the public and experts, negotiating with international organizations, and coordinating with other stakeholder agencies. We examine how these intensive institutional efforts began in March 2008, when, in the midst of rising interests in and concerns about global climate change impacts, the Sri Lanka Ministry of Mahaweli Development and Environment (MMD&E) established the Climate Change Secretariat (CCS). In Sri Lanka’s political history, the establishment of the CCS signalled the dawn of the new era, leading to a series of climate change mitigation and adaptation policy actions and improved institutional capacity in the following decade. CCS’s actions in drafting the National Climate Change Policy (NCCP) and implementing various coordinated intergovernmental programs under the policy demonstrated how a small island nation with limited financial and technical capacities could still mobilize domestic experts and international financial support to attain some tangible results. The CCS also followed international movements for public participation by engaging with the public.

The integration of the global HIV/AIDS response into universal health coverage: desirable, perhaps possible, but far from easy

BackgroundThe international community’s health focus is shifting from achieving disease-specific targets towards aiming for universal health coverage. Integrating the global HIV/AIDS response into universal health coverage may be inevitable to secure its achievements in the long run, and for expanding these achievements beyond addressing a single disease. However, this integration comes at a time when international financial support for the global HIV/AIDS response is declining, while political support for universal health coverage is not translated into financial support. To assess the risks, challenges and opportunities of the integration of the global HIV/AIDS response into national universal health coverage plans, we carried out assessments in Indonesia, Kenya, Uganda and Ukraine, based on key informant interviews with civil society, policy-makers and development partners, as well as on a review of grey and academic literature.ResultsIn the absence of international financial support, governments are turning towards national health insurance schemes to finance universal health coverage, making access to healthcare contingent on regular financial contributions. It is not clear how AIDS treatment will be fit in. While the global HIV/AIDS response accords special attention to exclusion due to sexual orientation and gender identity, sex work or drug use, efforts to achieve universal health coverage focus on exclusion due to poverty, gender and geographical inequalities. Policies aiming for universal health coverage try to include private healthcare providers in the health system, which could create a sustainable framework for civil society organisations providing HIV/AIDS-related services. While the global HIV/AIDS response insisted on the inclusion of civil society in decision-making policies, that is not (yet) the case for policies aiming for universal health coverage.DiscussionWhile there are many obstacles to successful integration of the global HIV/AIDS response into universal health coverage policies, integration seems inevitable and is happening. Successful integration will require expanding the principle of ‘shared responsibility’ which emerged with the global HIV/AIDS response to universal health coverage, rather than relying solely on domestic efforts for universal health coverage. The preference for national health insurance as the best way to achieve universal health coverage should be reconsidered. An alliance between HIV/AIDS advocates and proponents of universal health coverage requires mutual condemnation of discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity, sex work or drug use, as well as addressing of exclusion based on poverty and other factors. The fulfilment of the promise to include civil society in decision-making processes about universal health coverage is long overdue.

Agenda setting analysis for maternal mortality reduction: exploring influential factors using Kingdon's Stream Model.

Maternal mortality is considered as unacceptable death. This study aimed to analyse the agenda setting process for maternal mortality reduction policies in nine successful countries in achieving Millennium Development Goal 5 (MDG 5) using the Kingdon's multiple streams theory. This comparative study analysed the agenda setting process in nine successful countries which achieved MDG 5. The agenda setting analysed the use of the Kingdon's multiple streams model. To extract similarities and differences in the agenda setting process, the content analysis method, available documents and reports, and the comparative table were used. The initial attention to the problem of high rate of maternal mortality was different in the studied countries, but MDGs and the countries' official reports were the main driver. Political stability, political will, key person's contribution and legislation were considered influential factors strengthening political stream. International technical or financial support, regional and international conferences, national plans and enabling factors, which provide technical feasibility, were the most important factors influencing the policy stream. Enabling factors included approving regulations and legislation, increased quantity and quality of human resources, organizational structure, service delivery enhancement, infrastructure development, providing medicines and equipment, and strengthening health information system. The three streams: problem, policy and politics are not separate from each other. Political stability and commitment, having a national plan and benefiting from technical or financial support of international entities was a common feature among almost all the studied countries. The key actions leading to the opening of the window of opportunity were those actions that led to highlighting the problem.

The role of international institutions in fostering sub-Saharan Africa’s electrification

International institutions, such as multilateral development banks and national development agencies, are crucial in funding the provision of electricity services in sub-Saharan Africa. This article discusses the role of these institutions in bringing electricity to the region. The article shows that the scale and focus of global initiatives is wide and eclectic, and coordination between large and smaller funders remains critical. It highlights how over the past decade, 92 percent of international financial support to SSA’s electrification came from World Bank Group (WBG), the African Development Bank (AfDB) and the European Union (EU). The EU’s actions in the field appear to be particularly fragmented. The WBG, the AfDB and the US have streamlined their actions largely by focusing resources on a few initiatives. The article concludes with recommendations to help get more large-scale projects funded, and increase technical assistance and capacity building. Better coordination and information-sharing mechanisms to track the rapidly-changing landscape will be critical to achieve the energy access goals in sub-Saharan Africa.