International Emissions Research Articles

Study on the Influence of International Economic Law of Carbon Emission Trading on Environmental Sustainable Development

With the continuous development of global economic and trade activities, environmental problems have become an important factor restricting the sustainable development of all countries. How to realize the coordinated development of international trade and environmental protection has become a major issue facing the international community. Since China joined the WTO, its share of international trade has been increasing continuously. In order to deeply analyze the influence of international carbon emission trading policy on domestic carbon emissions, we use an input–output model and a GTAP analysis method to theoretically calculate the carbon emissions of the international trade of various departments in Shandong Province. At the same time, the implicit carbon emission index of various industries in 2022 is calculated through the direct energy consumption coefficient. The results show that there are significant differences in the impact of the carbon tariff system on different industries. In terms of the carbon emission index, the food processing industry showed a decrease of 18.99 Mt, while the implied carbon emission of the tobacco, textile and leather manufacturing industry reached 30.56 Mt due to the continuous expansion of trade scale. In contrast, the implied carbon emission level of the metal product processing industry reached 5.3 Mt, while the carbon emission of traditional trading industries such as coal mining was almost unaffected by international trade, and its carbon emission index reached the highest level of 5.89 in 2020. In terms of trade impact, high-trade industries such as the food processing industry are significantly affected by the carbon tariff policy, and their share has dropped from 5.89% to 3.95% in the past decade. The carbon emissions generated by GDP growth established by the GTAP model are more convincing. This model can directly reflect the energy efficiency of a region from the side. Based on the present situation of international trade, this paper analyzes the inequality of the current carbon tariff system, and puts forward some policies to optimize the energy structure to reduce carbon emissions and expand domestic demand to reduce the dependence on international trade. Through the GTAP model, we put forward policy suggestions to optimize the energy structure to reduce carbon emissions and the dependence on international trade by expanding domestic demand.

Review of the marine energy environment-a combination of traditional, bibliometric and PESTEL analysis

Marine renewable energy is regarded as a nascent renewable energy resource that is less utilized due to a number of challenges in the sector. This paper focused on using both traditional and bibliometric analysis approaches to review the marine energy industry. It also assessed the various opportunities and challenges in the sector beyond technological challenges using PESTEL analysis. The results from the study identified the availability of renewable energy targets, international and national greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction targets, job creation, skill transfer from offshore industries, renewable support, and low GHG emissions as the major opportunities for the sector. The challenges in the sector include the lack of commonality in device designs, high initial capital costs, lack of appropriate legal and regulatory frameworks, lack of funding, fragmentations in regulatory institutions, bad macro-economic indicators in some countries, environmental challenges, the survivability of the various technologies in the harsh oceanic environment, and strong competition from other renewable energy sources. The outcome of the bibliometric analysis spanning from 2013 to 2023 shows that tidal power is the focus of research in the field, and most studies are either focused on ways to improve its efficiency in terms of technology or on the identification of resource potentials for the siting of the various marine renewable power systems. Recommendations such as strong cooperation between the government and private sector, increased public education, collaboration with existing players in the marine sector, and increased research and development, among others, were proposed for the development of the sector.

Air pollutant emissions and sources in Lao People’s Democratic Republic: a provincial scale analysis for years 2013-2019

Recent rapid economic development in Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR) has increased national fuel consumption, vehicle fleet, industrial output, waste generation, and agricultural production. This has contributed to national average ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) air pollutant levels that are four times higher than World Health Organisation guidelines. Emission inventories are a key tool in understanding the major sources to these air pollution levels, and provide a starting point to identify where mitigation action can be targeted. A national air pollutant emission inventory has not been developed in Lao PDR and, combined with a limited air quality monitoring network means there is limited capacity to develop and track the effectiveness of mitigation actions. This study describes the first air pollutant emission inventory at the national and provincial scale for Lao PDR, covering 2013–2019. Emissions of nine air pollutants, and two greenhouse gases, were quantified using national statistics and international default emission factors. In 2019, national total PM2.5, Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), Black Carbon (BC), Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Non-Methane Volatile Organic Carbons (NMVOCs), and Ammonia (NH3) were 125, 83, 9.7, 26, 219, and 99 thousand tonnes respectively. Key source sectors include forest fires, residential cooking, agriculture, electricity generation, and transport. However, the contribution of different sources varies across provinces. Forest fires are the primary source determining the spatial trend of particulate air pollution while residential and agricultural emissions contribute more significantly to rural provinces such as Savannakhet. Key sectors in major urban provinces (Vientiane Capital and Xayaboury) are industry, transport and electricity generation. These sectors are also significant sources of greenhouse gases (CO2 and CH4), demonstrating the potential for identification, evaluation and prioritisation of actions that simultaneously improve air quality and achieve Lao PDR’s international climate change commitments.

Beyond the numbers: unveiling the environmental impacts of international tourism and the role of renewable energy transition

ABSTRACT In pursuit of Saudi Arabia's Vision 2030 objectives for a sustainable and low-carbon future, this study examines the intricate dynamics between carbon emissions and key variables crucial to the nation's decarbonisation strategy. Grounded in the Triple Bottom Line (TBL) Theory, the chosen variables – sustainable tourism, renewable energy demand, and natural resource management – take centre stage. Applying Markov switching regime regression to data spanning 1990–2022, our findings reveal a positive association between international tourism and carbon emissions, aligning with the Tourism-induced Environmental Impact theory. Incorporating the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC), our results illustrate a U-shaped relationship. Renewable energy consumption (REC) exhibits a negative impact, supporting EKC's premise that economic development and cleaner energy adoption mitigate environmental degradation. Identified as influential factors affecting carbon emissions, Economic growth and natural resource capital find theoretical backing. The second power of economic expansion positively influences carbon emissions, while the square of natural resources has a negative impact, aligning with resource scarcity theories. Granger causality estimates validate Tourism-led Growth, Resource Capital, and Emissions-led Growth hypotheses. Integrating insights from the Community-Based Tourism (CBT) and stakeholder theory, this study provides actionable insights for policymakers steering Saudi Arabia toward a sustainable, low-carbon future.

The Impact of Import and Export Trade on Carbon Emissions: Based on The Perspective of Belt and Road Countries

In the context of economic globalization, environmental issues have gradually attracted people's attention, and the "Belt and Road" Cooperation Initiative (hereinafter referred to as B&R) proposed by China aims to promote economic development at the same time, the environmental role has become particularly important. This study uses linear regression model, two-stage least square (2SLS) method and event study method to analyze the relationship between international trade and carbon emissions from the perspective of B&R countries. The results are as follows: the influence of import and export trade on carbon emissions is generally positive.; The correlation between industrial structure and carbon emission in the B&R countries is low. Joining the B&R has increased the volume of international trade to certain extent, thus increasing the carbon emissions of B&R countries.

Domestic versus international emissions trading with capital mobility

We employ the footloose capital model to examine and compare how two countries decide on their emission permits non-cooperatively under domestic and international emissions trading in the presence of capital mobility. We find that even if two countries are symmetric and have the same carbon prices under domestic emissions trading, they can benefit from international emissions trading. This finding holds regardless of capital mobility. We also find that allowing footloose capital increases each country’s and global emissions under domestic emissions trading; however, it does not affect emissions under international emissions trading. Additionally, we show that the cooperative choices of emission permits are the same regardless of international mobility of emission permits and capital and are always lower than the non-cooperative ones.

Four-quadrant modelling of carbon inequality in international trade and accounting for carbon compensation

In global trade, there is a phenomenon that the “economic gains” and “ecological damages” of some countries and regions are not consistent. Using the multi-regional input-output model (MRIO), this study measures the transfer of embodied carbon and value-added in trade among 16 countries or regions, including the European Union, the United States and other countries from 1995 to 2022. On this basis, we use the four-quadrant analysis method to classify the carbon inequality in international trade, and construct the carbon inequality index to quantify the carbon inequality situation in bilateral trade. The results indicate that carbon inequality between international trade can be divided into three categories: victims of absolute carbon inequality, relative carbon equality and beneficiaries of absolute carbon inequality. Carbon inequality in bilateral trade exists between developed and developing countries, as well as between developing countries. Finally, a carbon compensation accounting model is constructed to measure the monetary value of cross-regional carbon offset, which provides data support for international carbon emission reduction cooperation. Our study contributes to contemplating the impacts of international trade and provide recommendations for global equity and sustainable development.

A bibliometric and topic analysis of climate justice: Mapping trends, voices, and the way forward

The field of climate justice has been growing in relevance since its conception in 1997. This paper presents a comprehensive bibliometric and topic modelling analyses to examine the evolution and trajectory of the climate justice literature. We analyse 1,683 publications covering the period from 1997 to 2021, highlighting foundational works, influential authors, leading nations and institutions, and prevailing research topics within this field. We employ Latent Dirichlet Allocation to uncover latent research trends in the literature providing a crucial baseline for future scholarly endeavours and policy development in the realm of climate justice.Our results show that the field of climate justice has grown exponentially from less than 5 papers annually between 1997 and 2005, to around 200 papers annually in recent years. This growth has seen a diversification of research themes with an increase in papers around the topics of health, vulnerability and adaptation, and policy and activism. There has been a consistent backdrop of publications around the topics of sustainable development and policy, and international relations and carbon emissions. Other prominent topics in the literature include education and food security, and human rights and Indigenous people. The field has moved from theoretical research to examining actual examples of climate injustices, with an increased diversification of topics.Future research could usefully focus on exploring future generations and more-than-human entities; the integration of climate justice and climate activism with broader struggles for justice; re-thinking climate adaptation “success” and “effectiveness” through the lens of climate justice, and the ramifications of the Global Goal on Adaptation on climate justice led-approaches that are inclusive, build on human rights approaches, and extend the scale of adaptation analysis beyond the local. It is imperative to prioritise addressing the climate justice needs of those most affected by climate change, transcending national borders, generational gaps, cultural differences, and even the well-being of various species. Such a holistic approach will help inform and refine global climate policy and action.

Enhancing maritime education for ocean sustainability: A multidisciplinary approach

This research critically explores maritime education’s role in fostering ocean sustainability and preparing seafarer students to tackle environmental challenges. It highlights the importance of marine science and technology literacy and proposes innovative solutions aligned with ocean health, resilience, and global climate change mitigation. Through qualitative descriptive analysis of select research papers, this study offers insights beneficial to the maritime industry and environmental conservation. The findings stress the need for curriculum enhancements, advocating for integrating marine science subjects and advanced technologies in maritime education. Proficiency in marine science and technology literacy is crucial for students to become competent professionals and responsible stewards of the marine environment. Green shipping practices, eco-friendly vessel design, and environmental bio-monitoring are identified as transformative opportunities for the industry, requiring support from policymakers and stakeholders in line with international emissions reduction agreements. Integrating marine eco-biology education into maritime curricula empowers students to actively engage in marine biodiversity conservation. This interdisciplinary approach bridges theory and practice, offering a sustainable future for our oceans through collaboration between educational institutions, industry stakeholders, policymakers, and researchers.

Clean Development Mechanism: Indian Step Sustainable Environment

The Kyoto Protocol established the Clean Development system (CDM), a cooperative system that might help developing nations achieve sustainable development by encouraging environmentally conscious investment from firms and governments in affluent nations. An overview of the CDM's history, composition, and project cycle is given in this publication, which also looks at the benefits and potential value for participating developing nations like India. The Ozone layer is being weakened by pollution brought on by an increasing population. On our earth, every species is in danger of being extinct. The primary conclusions are: With the aid of the Kyoto Protocol, three formal methods for global emission reduction were established: Joint Implementation (JI), Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and International Emissions Trading (IET). It raises public awareness, and with the aid of certified emission reduction units, some environmental organizations developed the idea of carbon trading. The CDM offers both industrialized and developing nations a win-win scenario. Businesses in India such as Gujarat Fluoro Chemicals, Tata Steel, NTPC, ONGC, and others can obtain several facilities abroad by using CERs. Through the exchange of credits and reduction of GHG emissions, carbon trading and CER "claims" to avert the impending disaster. Therefore, it can be concluded that imposing carbon prices with refunds is an effective strategy to address the pre-existing issue. Since reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is a worldwide public good and the location of emission reductions has no bearing on the global stock of GHG, the CDM's premise is that reductions in emissions should be made where they can be done for the least amount of money. The findings shed light on potential difficulties in navigating market mechanisms in the future and show how the Carbon Offset Management (CDM) program has provided nearly 20 years of knowledge and expertise in the area of global carbon offset governance.

Surface Degradation of NMC Electrodes Exposed to Air and Impact on Subsequent Cycling

To meet the ambitious international emissions commitments laid out in the Paris climate agreement making the transition of society from being dependent on fossil fuels towards increased use of renewable energy sources possible, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are a key enabling technology. Even though LIBs are already extensively used in portable electronics and the rapidly expanding market of hybrid- and full-electric vehicles, more extensive deployment requires longer cycle-lifetimes, enhancements in energy density, and reductions in cost. In electric vehicles one of the most common materials for the positive electrodes is based on the lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LixNi1-y-zMnyCozO2, NMC) compound with different ratios of transition metals. The NMC materials are well known for consisting of reasonably abundant materials, their high energy density and good cyclebility. In order to decrease the price while also further improving the energy density, it has become more popular during the last few years to increase the nickel content, being responsible for the redox process thereby contributing to a larger capacity. By increasing the nickel content, the quantity of cobalt required will decrease further, reducing the price. However it is also well known that in materials where the nickel content is high the surface side reactions will be augmented leading to more degradation and shorter cycle life. A high nickel content will not only affect the electrochemical side reactions during cycling, it has also been found that as NMC materials are exposed to air they will react differently, with more reactions for the nickel rich materials.It has been found that the NMC can react with H2O to form a LiOH layer and that once the layer is thick enough further side reactions would be prevented.1 It was assumed that the passivation was caused by the deintercalation of lithium, where the thin disordered rock salt layer would mitigate the Li+-water reactions through decreasing the amount of lithium deintercalation.1 Furthermore, the surface impurities formed during the air exposure have been observed to directly impact electrochemical performance during the first couple of cycles. Hatsukade et al. used isotopic labelling in order to measure the CO2 formation during the first cycles originating from the oxidative decomposition of these impurities.2 Air exposure has been shown to affect not only the first few cycles but also long term cycling as well.3 The degradation of the NMC has been found to be caused by phase transformation into rock salt and spinel structure, leading to nickel reduction and as a result formation of inter granular cracks, eventually leading to isolation of the active particles and increased charge transfer resistance.4 In this study the surface interactions at NMC electrodes during air exposure will be presented, showing both how the interactions take place as well as how the air exposure will affect the electrode-electrolyte interfaces during cycling. The NMC surface is analysed by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), photoemission electron microscopy (PEEM) and x-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). Zou, L. et al. Unlocking the passivation nature of the cathode–air interfacial reactions in lithium ion batteries. Nat. Commun. 11, (2020).Hatsukade, T., Schiele, A., Hartmann, P., Brezesinski, T. & Janek, J. Origin of Carbon Dioxide Evolved during Cycling of Nickel-Rich Layered NCM Cathodes. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10, 38892–38899 (2018).Meatza, I. De, Landa-medrano, I., Sananes-israel, S. & Eguia-barrio, A. Powder and Electrodes on the Electrochemical Performance in Li-ion Technology. Batteries 8, 1–18 (2022).Busà, C., Belekoukia, M. & Loveridge, M. J. The effects of ambient storage conditions on the structural and electrochemical properties of NMC-811 cathodes for Li-ion batteries. Electrochim. Acta 366, (2021).

Sintered Bottom and Vitrified Silica Ashes Derived from Incinerated Municipal Solid Waste as Circular Economy-Friendly Partial Replacements for Cement in Mortars

Sintered bottom ash (SBA) and vitrified ash (VA) derived from the incineration of municipal solid waste (MSW) at 1200 °C were used in this study as replacements for Type 2 Portland cement (CEM-II) based mortars. This approach negates the need to send them to landfill, benefits the circular economy and contributes towards the decarbonisation of cementitious construction materials in response to international net zero carbon emission agendas. The material (physico-chemical) characteristics of VA and SBA were analysed before being used as partial replacements for CEM-II in mortars, whereby compressive strength (CS) was the primary criterion for assessing engineering performance. VA and SBA replaced CEM-II at dosages of 10%, 25% and 50% based on their high inorganic and pozzolanic contents; whereby the 10% and 25% replacements did not compromise mortar strength. The alkalinity and pozzolanic properties of SBA collectively indicated it has greater potential as a cementitious material over VA, which possessed a neutral pH. The 28-day CS recorded for mixtures containing 25% VA and 10% SBA were 13.74 MPa and 11.77 MPa, respectively compared with 17.06 MPa for CEM-II control samples. The use of 2% additional water in 25% SBA mortar designs improved strength further, indicating that SBA’s water retention properties permitted further hydration and strength development with curing. Microstructural, mineralogical and infrared spectroscopy analyses indicated that these strengths were owed to the formation of silicate-based hydration products. The outcomes from this study highlight that SBA has potential for replacing CEM-II and VA as a filler in cementitious mortar.Graphical

Deploying direct air capture at scale: How close to reality?

The role of negative emissions in achieving deep decarbonization targets has been demonstrated through Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs). While many studies have focused on bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS), relatively little attention has been given to direct air capture (DAC) in IAMs beyond assessing the role of low-cost DAC with carbon storage (DACCS). In this study, we employ an economy-wide model to more fully explore the potential role of DAC, considering the full range of cost estimates ($180–$1000/tCO2), DAC units supplied by either dedicated renewables or grid electricity, and both the storage of captured CO2 (DACCS) or its utilization (DACCU) to produce fuels. Our results show that the deployment of DAC is driven by its cost and is dominated by DACCS, with little deployment of DACCU. We analyze the technical and policy conditions making DACCS compete with BECCS, investigating scenarios in which BECCS is limited and there is no emissions trading across countries. With an international emissions trading system (ETS), we find that Africa takes advantage of its large and cheap renewable potential to export emissions permits and contributes more than half of total global negative emissions through DAC. However, DAC also proves essential when no ETS is available, particularly in Asian countries due to scarce and expensive access to land and bioenergy. Our analysis provides a comprehensive evaluation of the impact of DAC on the power system, economy, and land use.

Evaluation of CO2 and SO2 synergistic emission reduction: The case of China

The industrial sector has significantly contributed to global climate change and urban air pollution while driving economic development. This paper takes the synergistic CO2 and SO2 emission reduction in China's industrial sector as an entry point quantifies the synergistic CO2 and SO2 emission reduction effect using the Kaya extension model and analyzes the synergistic emission reduction expansion mechanism in depth. It is found that the synergistic effect of CO2 and SO2 in the industrial sector is prevalent in most provinces in China. Every 10,000 tons of CO2 emission reduction leads to 1600 tons of SO2 emission reduction. Regional heterogeneity also clarifies that there are differences in synergistic emission reduction among different provinces, with most regions having a significant positive effect of synergistic emission reduction, while a small number of regions have an inverse effect, and direct SO2 reduction measures should be considered separately. The interaction effect analysis found that energy efficiency improvement in the industrial sector is the critical path to synergistic effect enhancement. At the same time, R&D expenditure and fixed asset investment have a weak effect on synergistic emission reduction. The interaction of the three factors can synergize the emission reduction effect by more than twice. The study's findings can be used as a reference for China's industrial sector to achieve the goal of reducing pollution and carbon emissions and for the practice of regional synergistic emission reduction, as well as for the formulation of international synergistic emission reduction policies.

Correlation Between Carbon Emission Treaty and Inequality

The paper discusses the relationship between the imposition of international carbon emission treaties and economic inequality. The paper draws a positive correlation between carbon emission treaties and economic inequality, the matter is most pronounced in developing countries. The substantiation, realization, and understanding of the relationship is crucial in the modern context. Following the pace of globalization, a thorough comprehension of the concept of inequality is quintessential to the resolve of international conflicts and/or affairs. As countries grow increasingly correlated, it is in the stakeholders common interest that historical legacies can be objectively evaluated and thus have the inter-nation historical discrepancies recognized and thereby worked upon; thus, the carbon emission historical discrepancy and the treaties that further inequality across the globe is of utmost importance to be researched, and discussed upon.

Towards sustainable transport: quantifying and mitigating pollutant emissions from heavy-duty diesel trucks in Northeast China.

Heavy-duty diesel trucks (HDDTs) have caused serious environmental pollution in China. Accurate estimation of their pollutant emission characteristics is essential to reduce emissions and associated environmental and public health impacts. To achieve sustainable development for transport emissions in Northeast China, we developed localized emission factors and a high-resolution emission inventory of HDDTs, based on on-board test, Guidebook and international vehicle emission (IVE) model. The results show that the total emissions of CO, NO, NO2, and PM from HDDTs in Northeast China in 2020 were 172.2 kt, 531.5 kt, 11.2 kt, and 921.4 t, respectively. In terms of spatial distribution, emissions decreased from the city center to the city fringe. Temporally, the NOx emission variation curves of different types of roads presented a "single-peak" emission characteristic, which was different from the peak of traffic flow. Three emission reduction scenarios are further developed in the paper. Scenario analysis shows that elimination of HDDTs that follow the old China III emission standard and installing tailpipe treatment devices are the most effective pollutant reduction measure. The reduction percentages for CO, NO, NO2, and PM ranged from 62.9 to 83.89%. The results of our study could inform policymakers to devise feasible strategies to reduce vehicle pollution in Northeast China.

Economic and policy requirements for the deployment of Power to Methane (P2M) for grid-scale energy management

Biological power to methane, where CO2 and renewable H2 are biologically converted to synthetic methane gas, could deliver strategic benefits including provision of a gaseous fuel that is compatible with existing infrastructure, increased energy security, a mechanism to recycle CO2 to displace the extraction of fossil carbon, enabling the storage of renewable energy, and provision of a vector for transportation and storage of hydrogen. This study shows that the technology is currently economically viable under very limited conditions given current UK and EU policy and economic frameworks. Three key policy and economic modifications are needed for broader deployment; i) international emissions allowance schemes should be structured such that recycling of carbon gases are encouraged, ii) ready access to low cost of capital funding mechanisms for technologies that can deliver multiple energy and environmental benefits, and iii) revenue is generated from all value propositions which, in the case of Power to Methane, includes the service of enabling of long-term energy storage. This study indicates that minimum revenues of £2.50 (€2.80) / kWh to £10 (€11.30) / kWh for enabling energy storage would be sufficient to deliver positive Net Present Values given the conditions and assumptions made.

Size-resolved particulate matter filtration efficiency of macroporous asymmetric SiC ceramic filters

Controlling particulate matter (PM) emissions to the atmosphere in industrial processes is critical for a safe and healthy environment. Because of its high strength and thermal stability, silicon carbide (SiC) is among the best materials for producing hot gas filters to be coupled to sugarcane bagasse-fired boilers in Brazil and India. In this study, we evaluated the performance of asymmetric SiC-based filters of different features for removing fine PM with particle sizes ranging from 90 to 3000 nm. The collection efficiency of the asymmetric filter made of SiC/mullite support with no pore former, porosity of 31–33 %, and permeability of (0.17–0.30) × 10−11 m2 with a coating thickness of 109–138 μm, effective pore size of 19–26 μm, and effective collector diameter of 64–86 μm was higher than 99 % for PM with size greater than 0.60 μm. The SiC formulation with mullite and pore former also presented promising performance. The resulting pressure drop remained within the range reported for commercial hot gas filters. Over 99 % of the mass of soot and fly ash particles generated during sugarcane bagasse combustion exceeds the MPPS range found for filters, which was between 0.16 and 0.36 μm. Therefore, the SiC asymmetric filters presenting mullite in their formulation are anticipated to meet current international emission standards.

Analyzing the nexus between tourism and CO2 emissions: the role of renewable energy and R&D

This study aims to investigate the relationship between tourism development, renewable energy consumption (REN), research and development (R&D) expenditure, and CO2 emissions in 12 emerging markets and middle-income Europe spanning 1999–2020. We applied the panel autoregressive distributed lag and the Driscoll–Kraay estimator to determine the relationship between variables. According to both estimators’ results, a U-shaped relationship exists between economic growth and CO2 emissions. This result indicates that the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis is invalid in these countries. Furthermore, REN and R&D contribute to decreasing CO2 emissions and stimulating sustainable development. However, the impact of tourism development on CO2 emissions is found to be negative in panel autoregressive distributed lag but positive in the Driscoll and Kraay estimator for fixed and random effects. Moreover, the Dumitrescu and Hurlin panel causality test reveals a two-way causal relationship between R&D and CO2 emissions and a one-way causal linkage running from economic growth, the square of economic growth, and tourist arrival to CO2 emissions. Overall, our results prove the existence of a relationship between international tourism and CO2 emissions. Furthermore, our results suggest some policy recommendations for policymakers to reduce CO2 emissions through REN, R&D, green economic development, and establishing an ecologically friendly tourism policy.

Study on international carbon emission quota allocation of shipping industry-based on fairness and efficiency

In 2024, the EU intends to include the global shipping industry in the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS). Shipping companies will have to pay for the carbon emissions of ships over 5,000 GT on routes between EU and non-EU ports. This paper selects typical shipping companies in the world. Based on the principle of fairness, historical method, baseline method and mixed method are adopted to explore their carbon emission quota allocation. The ZSG-DEA efficiency model is used to evaluate the distribution results and verify the optimal efficiency. The research results show that the mixed method has a high efficiency of allocation. The method predicts that the carbon quota of typical shipping companies in the world will reach the Pareto optimal allocation in 2024 and Maersk has the highest carbon emission quota among the eight typical shipping companies, reaching 32,431,800 tons, followed by MSC and EMC, reaching 8,542,400 tons and 6,809,500 tons, respectively. Based on the results, we can obtain a reasonable allocation of carbon allowances in the EU carbon market according to the proportion of business of shipping companies involved in EU routes. The research is still applicable to the allocation of carbon emmissions in future years. Therefore, this paper provides suggestions for the orderly allocation of carbon quota and carbon trading in the global shipping market.