International Space Cooperation Research Articles

Space Security and the Law of International Space Cooperation: The Need for Leadership and Coordination

In recent times space exploration and technological advancements hold prominent importance, the merger of space security and international collaboration must be paid attention too. Whereby, during the recent advancements in space technologies which include the proliferation of satellite and emergence of various space programs, the non-commercial and sustainable utilization of space must be taken care of. This paper explores and access the methodologies adopted and put into motion by nation having a well-established space program to address the difficulties faced while maintaining the space security along with ongoing space explorations. This research study will also pay emphasis towards analysing the already existing legal framework which directly governs various outer space activities, international organizations, role of governments and private industry players towards shaping of governance in outer space. In order to build trust and furthering the shared objectives in outer space and resolution of disputes among nation states, emphasis on how significant and valued international cooperation and diplomacy can prove to be. The various risks factors such as deliberate actions which are testing of anti-satellite weapons and dispersion of space debris in high volumes that the assets in space encounter are explored in this research. This study also discusses about case studies that have impacted the outer space and space explorations and other space missions positively as well as negatively in past instances. This study concludes the necessity of proactive leadership and teamwork in addressing the issue of space security and the legislation of international space cooperation. Roles of significant stakeholders, implementation of future course of actions with necessary changes to guide and provide policymakers in understanding the complexity of space reforms for peaceful utilization of outer space for both current and future human race.

Network analysis of international cooperation in space 1958–2023: Evidence of space blocs

The future of international cooperation in outer space was questioned when, in January 2022, Russia announced that it intended to leave the International Space Station (ISS) in 2024. A symbol of post-Cold War reconciliation, the station has linked Washington and Moscow even when relations on the ground frayed. The ISS has become a bedrock of international cooperation, having welcomed 276 individuals from 22 countries since it was first put in orbit in 1998. Russia’s announced departure from the ISS alarmed proponents of international cooperation in space. Its actions, however, do not signal an end but a new phase in international cooperative dynamics in space. This article examines international cooperation in outer space from 1958 until 2023. Using network analysis, it quantifies cooperative relations between states on space matters to examine the current state of international cooperation in space and its evolving dynamics. It finds that international cooperation in space has become increasingly defined by the emergence of distinct clusters of states, termed ‘space blocs’. Recent patterns of international cooperation in space markedly deviate from past dynamics in three key aspects. First, since 2008, distinct, bound space blocs can be clearly detected. Second, the internal composition of recent space blocs has become increasingly reflective of geopolitical affinities and strategic considerations on the ground. Third, although highly bound and distinct, the more recent space blocs are not entirely isolated and have not instituted any exclusionary practices, which is promising for the future of international space cooperation.

Development of cooperation in the space industry: from 1959 to 1962

The article reveals the main aspects of the or­ganization of cooperation in space activities at the initial stage of its development when the fiercest space race between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States of America was taking place. The main goals of the international community concerning joint research and develop­ment of outer space and celestial bodies, as well as the circumstances that influenced the formation of such cooperation at this stage, are explained and analyzed.
 In addition, the article is also concerned with the issue of the international bodies establishment related to the organization and control of joint space activity, the issue of the organization of in­terstate cooperation in outer space in the direction of creating communication accessible to the pop­ulation of the entire planet with the help of satel­lites, the issue of legal regulation of joint activity in outer space and on celestial bodies, as well as the issue of creating an international network of space­ports for launching sounding rockets by all interest­ed participants in space activities (in particular, to make it possible for non-state organizations to take part in space activities).
 Considering the modern competition among states in the struggle for dominance in outer space and on celestial bodies and the dangers that such a competition brings, the study returns to the origins of space activity to identify and analyze the factors that influenced the formation of international cooperation in space (both negatively and positively).
 The main focus is on international documents adopted by the United Nations General Assembly between 1959 and 1962.
 Specifically, the results of the study of the three main Resolutions adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in this period regarding international cooperation in the use of outer space for peaceful purposes are presented.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN OUTER SPACE: FROM THE COLD WAR ERA TO FEBRUARY 24, 2022

The article reviews the changing landscape of international relations in the space sphere; examines the history of international cooperation in outer space: from the Cold War era to the beginning of Russia's large-scale invasion of Ukraine; examines key partnerships and initiatives, the advantages of such cooperation and challenges. The author proves that international relations in the field of space exploration and research are dual in nature. On the one hand, countries form international alliances to implement large-scale space projects, on the other hand, states strive to have independent access to space to ensure national security. The author's periodization of the development of international relations in the space sphere is given: 1) the first decade of space exploration – during this period, international cooperation in outer space was completely missing, but it was during these years that the foundations of the international legislative framework were laid; it is still in force today; 2) since the 70s of the twentieth century, the number of states that explore space has been growing and the first international space organization, the European Space Agency (ESA), is being formed; 3) after the end of the Cold War, US cooperation with the former Soviet republics intensified, which further led to US dependence on third countries in the space sphere; 4) in the early 2000s, the number of participants in space activities increased at the expense of private companies, which became possible due to a technological leap, in particular the miniaturization of space technology and the cheapening of electronics; 5) Russia's war against Ukraine has changed the international landscape of space activities, strengthened public-private partnerships and demonstrated the growing role of satellite technologies in national security issues.

China-Pakistan Space Cooperation: Path, Motivation And The Future

After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, friendly bilateral relations between China and Pakistan have become increasingly close in various fields following China’s peaceful rise. The space cooperation that started after the end of the Cold War is a sign of the gradual progress of the relationship between the two countries to the current all-weather strategic cooperative partnership. With China’s assistance, Pakistan has achieved significant milestones in the space field. Pakistan is also a key node in China’s strategy to expand international space cooperation. After the 2010s, China-Pakistan space cooperation was integrated with the construction of the Space Silk Road and the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor under the framework of the Belt and Road Initiative, becoming a model for space cooperation specifically promoting the social and economic development of developing countries. This paper outlines the complete picture of China-Pakistan space cooperation under the evolutionary logic and chronological context of "ideological-materialization" two-way mutual construction, so as to reasonably predict the prospects of China-Pakistan space cooperation.

Russia in Outer Space: A Shrinking Space Power in the Era of Global Change

Since 2014, the Russian space sector has handled institutional rearrangement and external economic pressure. On the one hand, the establishment of the State Space Corporation Roscosmos intended to renovate a critical segment and save an industry that is one of the jewels of the Soviet legacy. On the other hand, the Russian annexation of Crimea triggered waves of financial and economic sanctions that crippled the country's access to space technologies and broader international cooperation in outer space. As a result of the dynamic, the Russian space program has been in a grey zone in recent years. On the eve of the war in Ukraine, the Russian government made a strategic choice for total decoupling from Western countries. The Russian decision stresses a trajectory already taken where space activities are increasingly becoming an instrument of deterrence. The military dimension increasingly defines the Russian space program, while LEO becomes an area for confrontation. To circumvent complete isolation in the international arena, Russia will attempt to maintain vigorous diplomatic actions to curb the technology desert and maintain vital space activities in the foreseeable future. Hence, this article aims to identify available tools that Russia may use to envision a new strategy in outer space. Considering the rupture between the West and Russia, we describe the long-term effects on the space industry. We finally highlight potential alternative cooperations that may allow Russia to build its space diplomacy around a network of peripheral states while the partnership with China remains restricted.

Social-legal foundations of information security of the state, society and individual in Ukraine

Ukraine is experiencing military aggression due to the full-scale invasion of Russia, which uses information weapons. Therefore, the problem of ensuring a sufficiently high level of information security in Ukraine is relevant. The purpose of the research – to highlight the essence and features of the concept of "information security", and related terms, and to perform a comprehensive analysis of the current regulatory framework on ensuring a reliable level of information security as the basis of national security. To achieve this purpose, the author uses empirical, theoretical and comprehensive methods of scientific research, namely: observation, comparison, abstraction, analysis and synthesis, and comparative-legal, Aristotelian, analogy and deduction methods. The author proves the significance of ensuring information security at the level of each entity as the foundation for the existence of the Ukrainian information society and a means of counteracting the aggressive actions of the Russian Federation. The factors influencing information security are identified, in the context of which the significant role of the culture of protection of society is demonstrated. The significance of ensuring an appropriate level of cybersecurity as a defining element of information defence, the provision of which should be as consistent as possible with the State information policy, is substantiated. The author outlines the potential consequences of failure to maintain a reliable level of information and cybersecurity against the background of a full-scale invasion, namely: the overthrow of the government, collapse of Ukraine’s reputation in the international arena, chaotic processes in society and growing discontent, economic crisis and human casualties. The author describes the current state of information security in the country and suggests ways to improve it, in particular by reforming the existing legal regulation, considering the political experience of other countries and scientific achievements, transforming the State information policy with a focus on preventing information offences, international cooperation in the global information space and developing the information culture of the population. These recommendations can be used to eliminate shortcomings in the legal regulation of information security issues and to develop proposals for reforming the national information policy

U.S. Space Policy and Theories of International Relations: The Case for Analytical Eclecticism

Space activities and infrastructure today are critical to international security and the global economy. The space domain is not, however, subject to sovereign control by international law. Like other shared domains, such as the high seas, the polar regions, and arguably cyberspace, space is a domain in which State and non-State actors interact beyond national borders. Given global dependence on space-derived information and an increase in potential adversary threats to space assets, States have taken a number of steps in recent years to protect their national interests in space. Despite its importance and increasing global attention, international cooperation and competition in space is a relatively under theorized topic in international relations. Conversely, international relations theories are not widely used in the development of United States (U.S.) national space policy and the practice of space diplomacy, from a U.S. perspective. The intent of this article is to address this rift between theory and policy by briefly describing major theories of international relations and where they can shed light on how and why States engage in cooperation and competition in space. The article addresses the major schools of realism, liberalism, and constructivism, with applications to space activity. No single theory fully describes the U.S. policy approach to international space activities. Different theories, applied to the same situation, can, however, provide useful perspectives to both theorists and policy-makers. This suggests the use of a mixed, pragmatic approach, referred to as “eclectic theorizing” in international relations literature, as a promising avenue for further research.

Political Aspects of International Cooperation in Space

The article discusses the role of international cooperation in relation to advanced space programs, especially in the interests of developing countries. Options for international cooperation in space projects such as the ISS and the Tiangong space station. The author of the calculation that China’s defense space project, the Tiangong space station, is a promising area of cooperation between Russia and China. To implement this project, China is emphasizing global cooperation and inviting more advanced space nations to release large amounts of hydrocarbons. In addition, China provides an opportunity to participate in long-term countries in the interest of greater international cooperation. The purpose of this international study is to analyze the situation in the field of relations in the field of space, as well as a forecast on the implementation of promising space projects and the development of international space cooperation. The methodological component of the study of systemic, functional, comparable, normative-value, as well as prognostic methods. The author also came to the conclusion that the current geopolitical situation requires immediate decision-making on making decisions on amending most international acts.

Alternative futures for crewed space cooperation after the international space station

The International Space Station (ISS) has been the largest and most visible international space cooperation project for decades. The program began in the 1980s during the Cold War, incorporated Russia after the end of the Cold War, and has sustained permanent human occupancy in low Earth orbit for over 20 years. Although political support among the partners appears solid, it is uncertain how many more years the Station will be able to operate technically. The operating costs of the Station for the United States and international partners are considerable and have been increasing as the facility ages. These costs impose a constraint on the willingness and ability of international partners to participate in new human exploration efforts, such as Artemis, the European Space Agency (ESA) Lunar Village concept, and the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) plans of China and Russia. Given the central importance of the ISS to international human spaceflight cooperation today, what are the possible alternative futures for crewed space missions in a post-ISS world? States and private sector actors could work to extend the ISS, participate in the Chinese Space Station, create multiple, smaller government and private human-tended platforms, focus on human missions to the Moon and Mars, or even cease participation in human space exploration altogether. This paper examines these alternatives futures, assesses the attractiveness and practicality of the alternatives to spacefaring states, and seeks to identify the key areas of technical, economic, and policy uncertainty that will shape the post-ISS era of human space exploration.

Особенности пространственного развития территорий (на примере субъектов РФ в составе Дальневосточного федерального округа)

The purpose of the article is to study the key factors and conditions affecting the state and spatial development of territories (based on the materials on social and economic situation of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation in the Far Eastern macroregion). The research methodology is based on the theoretical provisions of regional economic science, dialectical and systemic approaches, economic and statistical, specifically comparative, comparative and content analysis, the use of methods of logical comparison and expert assessments. The features of spatial development, which are typical for the regional level and affect not only the state and prospects of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and federal districts, but also the entire national economy of Russia, are analyzed. The Far Eastern Federal District is a dynamically developing macroregion with a potential for economic development, which was chosen as the object of research. Based on specific material, the reasons for the differences in the social and economic situation of its constituent regions are revealed, their key macroeconomic indicators are analyzed. The starting point for the analysis is the assumption that the transformational changes in the national economic system of Russia caused by the consequences of the global pandemic crisis naturally affect the functioning of industries and territories in a spatial aspect. The expediency of application of a systematic approach to the analysis of all components of the economic subsystem of the Far Eastern Federal District is substantiated. The factors affecting the territorial and sectoral structure of the economy of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation within the Far Eastern Federal District were identified. This made it possible to present the drivers of economic growth and make suggestions in the optimization of the relationship of all economic entities within the administrative and territorial entities that have distinctive characteristics and essential features. Recommendations for the improvement of the economic and financial condition of the Far Eastern regions, achievement of a balance of subnational budgets were formulated. Productive vectors for further research can be quantitative and qualitative assessment of factors affecting the rates of economic growth, volume and structure of the GRP of these constituent entities of the Russian Federation, substantive analysis of possible areas of international cooperation in the Eurasian space.

ТРАНСФОРМАЦІЯ МІЖНАРОДНИХ ЕКОНОМІЧНИХ ВІДНОСИН УКРАЇНИ

The article is devoted to consideration of modern directions, features of the transformation of international economic relations of Ukraine (IERU), the content of which is defined as the process of restructuring, implementation of structural changes, introduction of innovative forms, methods, tools of functioning of the world economic relations of our state. The main prerequisites for the transformation of the IERU have been studied: a) globalization of the world economy; b) challenges of scientific and technical progress; c) the consequences of the war of the Russian Federation against Ukraine. In the theoretical aspect, the approach to the content of the dialectical interaction of the IERU and the foreign economic activity of Ukraine (FEAU), which, respectively, are considered as the essence and form of a single integral phenomenon - the system of international economic relations of our state. Special attention is paid to the analysis of the transformation of the following components of the IERU: a) foreign trade relations; b) problems of emigration of labor resources; c) adaptation to the conditions of the world labor market. Modern features of the transformation of foreign trade are noted, in the process of which the existing parameters of export-import operations, regional displacement of foreign trade volumes are taken into account. The directions of the transformation of IERU related to the domestic demographic situation are highlighted. They are characterized by a reduction in the active component of labor resources; employed in the field of foreign trade; termination of entrepreneurial activity by a part of the private sector, oriented towards international business; reduction of currency transfers from workers abroad; expenses related to the social security of immigrants in Ukraine and abroad. The effect of international economic sanctions against the Russian Federation is considered as a factor in the transformation of the IER. As promising directions of research into the transformation of IERU, it is proposed to consider: a) features of the accelerated development of external relations in the field of information and communication services; b) specifics of implementation of digital technologies in enterprises of the export sector; c) use of innovative forms of international cooperation in the global digital space.

China's National Space Station: Opportunities, Challenges, and Solutions for International Cooperation

The principle of international cooperation is among the basic principles of both general international law and space law. Based on the development and improvement of the norm of international cooperation as kind of “cooperation for the common interests (of the international community),” when engaging in international cooperation in outer space, China should take as its fundamental purpose the advancement of “cooperation for the common interests” by taking into account both its own national interests and the common interests of the international community as a whole. To realize that purpose, the country should emphasize international cooperation in establishing a space station as a specific implementation approach and adopt a China-led cooperation model. On the one hand, China should invite more developed space-faring countries to participate in such cooperation to safeguard its own interests. On the other hand, it should also create opportunities for developing countries to participate in an attempt to safeguard the common interests of the wider international community.

PRINCIPLE OF INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN MODERN INTERNATIONAL SPACE LAW

The article considers the principle of international cooperation within the framework ofmodern international space law. The author comes to the conclusion that the principle is a principle of general international law, but it has some features in international space law due to the specifi c of this branch. Such features include the implementation of international cooperation in accordance with international law, including the Charter of the United Nations and the Outer Space Treaty; for the bene fi t and in the interests of all countries taking into special consideration the needs of the developing countries (In particular, obligation of the States to consider on a basis of equality any requests by other States Parties to the Outer Space Treaty to be aff orded an opportunity to observe the fl ight of space objects launched by those States and to inform the international community of their activities in outer space); on an equitable and mutually acceptable basis, using the most eff ective and appropriate modes of cooperation; in the fi eld of the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes. The broad participation of the private sector in international space cooperation is also an important feature.

History of Preflight Cosmonaut Training Complex Creation at the Baikonur Cosmodrome. Time to Create. (Part 3).

The paper presents historical facts about the development of cosmonaut preflight training complex at the Baikonur cosmodrome in the 70s of the last century. A brief substantiation of the need for further development of the complex to solve the growing tasks of domestic manned space program and international cooperation in space is given. The third stage of building facilities of the complex as well as their role and place in providing pre-flight training for cosmonauts are described.

Legislation on Space security. South Korean and Poland Challenges

This article refers to the Space security legislation in South Korea and Poland. Both states have already prepared some legislation on Security in Space- the question is the following- if there is still a need of progress and if those presented legislation are sufficient for the practical purposes of the peaceful uses of Outer Space. South Korea is a much more experienced state in using space than Poland; the same seems with the legislation. Poland as less experienced state in this matter has lots of ambitions to create the efficient legislation on Space security, so it must follow the good examples of states and institution in this matter. One of them is Korea. On the other state, Poland as a Member of EU must implement the European law in space security (in particular SSA), which seems to be priceless and efficient for the international cooperation in Space.

Cooperation in space: An international comparison for the benefit of emerging space agencies

This paper provides a comparison of models for international cooperation by space states. By analysing the successes and failures of these models, recommendations about international cooperation have been presented for the benefit of emerging space agencies, for example, the Australian Space Agency. As international cooperation in space is very wide-ranging in nature, this paper also researches and analyses a number of specific topics intended to provide valuable insights for emerging space agencies. The paper draws upon the learnings of emerging space nations and established space actors. Reasons for international cooperation are examined, along with the legal frameworks used to support it. Examples of international cooperation in space projects are reviewed along with international committees promoting cooperation. The use of international cooperation in helping solve a major ‘space challenge’ facing the world is examined and a framework for evaluating potential cooperative initiatives is proposed. This report emerged from the research conducted in Space Ready: The Launchpad For Emerging Agencies which provided policy recommendations for new space states from a comparative analysis of the aims, structure, funding, and activities over 14 different space agencies. The report was written during the 2018 International Space University's Southern Hemisphere Space Studies Program, in which students from 15 countries with diverse academic backgrounds were able to provide insider perspectives on the space agency of their countries.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN SPACE TECHNOLOGY: AN ABSTRACTION WITH FUZZY LOGIC ANALYSIS

Abstract. India’s cooperation with International Space faring nations has a long legacy of cooperation. As India moves towards realizing its space aspirations, its co-operation for outreach and capacity building with international partners will increase. This cooperation is reflected in all spheres of national development, security and space exploration of both the primary as well as partnering nation. Policy considerations and directives acts as a key to define the future course of action for such cooperation. The paper attempts to present parameters for evaluating policy options of India’s international space cooperation with an example of India-Israel space cooperation. The paper uses fuzzy logic modeling for scoring parametric valuation for pursuing cooperation. This valuation can assist in making feasibility analysis for a collaborative mission or project with a partnering nation. These parameters include the erstwhile and ongoing collaborations and cooperation, economics of the collaborative project, security considerations, technical considerations & space ambitions. The output delivers aggregated value for ‘checks and balance’ derivatives for informed decision making.

Understanding India’s International Space Cooperation Endeavour: Evolution, Challenges and Accomplishments

India has now emerged as a major space-faring nation with notable accomplishments in the launch vehicle, satellite, space application and space exploration domains in spite of beginning its space programme from a disadvantageous position vis-à-vis other space-faring nations of the day, besides endeavouring entirely in the civilian domain. International cooperation played an important role during the genesis and the early evolution of the Indian space programme and has played a complimentary role during the progressive accumulation of India’s current space capabilities. Once a recipient of assistance in the domain of space, in the new millennium, India has achieved the status of an equal and even a major partner in some of the joint space endeavours with its erstwhile benefactors and has established facilities for training space personnel from developing countries of the Asia-Pacific region. This article critically reviews India’s international space cooperation endeavour in the past five decades and its influence on the country’s current space capabilities.

Шанхайская организация сотрудничества и Большая Евразия

This article analyses the current role of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) in the development of international cooperation in the Eurasian space and explores the prospects for multifaceted cooperation within the framework of the Organisation. The analysis shows that steady dialog between neighbouring states, aimed at the search for common interests in addressing common regional challenges, is vital for sustainable growth under current conditions. The maintenance of security throughout the cooperative effort plays a key role. The presence of these elements promotes the gradual integration of different approaches to the development of regional economic collaboration as well as a co-evolutionary transformation of economic interests.The article also examines the characteristics of the partnership system within the framework of the SCO with respect to international cooperation. This system is able to provide an institutional platform for broad regional economic cooperation in the context of Eurasian development, the implementation of new national strategies by SCO members, joint efforts for the further integration and development of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) and the realization of the Chinese One Belt One Road initiative with its potential to form a greater partnership in Eurasia and the Asia-Pacific region.