ICRP Research Articles

Forty-eight-year follow-up of a female worker exposed to highly enriched uranium via chronic and acute inhalation.

The United States Transuranium and Uranium Registries (USTUR) is a unique resource of data and materials for studying biokinetics of uranium in the human body. In this study, bioassay data and post-mortem organ activities from a female whole-body USTUR donor who was exposed to highly enriched uranium were analyzed using the IMBA Professional Plus® software to derive the best estimate of the total intake. The resulting radiation doses delivered to this individual's whole body and major target organs were calculated from estimated intake based on case-specific dose coefficients derived using the AIDE® software. Both intake and dose calculations were carried out using the biokinetic and dosimetric models recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) in its Occupational Intakes of Radionuclides publication series. Different exposure scenarios including chronic and acute inhalation intakes were tested. A combination of a chronic inhalation intake and two acute inhalation intakes appears to best describe the bioassay data. To fit this female individual's autopsy data, the transfer rate from the liver to the blood was increased by a factor of 8 and the transfer rate from the kidneys to the blood was decreased by a factor of 2.2. This resulted in the best fit to all data (p=0.519). The total intake was estimated to be 44.1kBq, and the committed effective dose was 211mSv with 96.8% contributed by 234U. 96.6% of the committed effective dose was contributed by the lungs. The remaining 3.4% of the committed effective dose was contributed by all systemic tissues and organs with the highest contribution (0.40%) from the red bone marrow. It is concluded that the current ICRP models, with the adjustment for smoking status, adequately describe uranium biokinetics for this individual except retention in the liver and kidneys. However, this study was based on a single case and may not be sufficient to identify any apparent sex-specific differences in uranium biokinetics.

Monte Carlo simulations of a standing geometry whole body counter: Effects of skeletal sampling, age, sex and phantom size on calibration

International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) adult and pediatric reference computational phantoms are widely employed to evaluate calibration of in-vivo monitoring systems using Monte Carlo codes. Quick Scan Whole Body Monitor (QSWBM) is an in-vivo monitoring system capable of fast screening subjects in standing linear geometry. In the present study, our objectives include: (1) Monte Carlo estimation of QSWBM counting efficiencies using age and sex specific ICRP computational reference phantoms, (2) understand the effect of skeletal sampling in counting efficiency, (3) comparison of efficiencies for multiple sized voxel phantoms of same age group and sex, and (4) comparison of experimental and numerical calibration. With this study, we have numerically estimated QSWBM counting efficiencies for three important gamma energies, 662 keV from 137Cs and 1173 keV and 1332 keV from 60Co using FLUKA code and a total of fifteen computational phantoms. The results obtained from the present work rule out the necessity of computationally complex skeletal soft tissue sampling in numerical calibration of standing geometry whole body counters for in-vivo detection of uniformly distributed sources in human body. It was also found that the efficiencies were greatly influenced by the physical size of the subjects while the deviation due to sex is not very great. Experimental calibration using Indian Reference Bottle Mannequin ABsorber (BOMAB-I) phantom was compared with modified adult male computational phantom of equivalent physical dimensions to understand the deviations. With this study, QSWBM was numerically calibrated to detect 137Cs and 60Co in diverse subjects of a population.

Radiation dose in radiologist from cerebral angiography using optically stimulated luminescence dosimeter

Background: The number of cerebral angiography procedures is increasing, resulting in higher X-ray radiation doses received by radiologists. Consequently, understanding the radiation doses received by radiologists and the accumulation of radiation in control rooms is crucial for guiding prevention strategies against radiation hazards. Objectives: This study aimed to measure and evaluate radiation doses to the hands, lenses of the eyes, and thyroids of radiologists performing cerebral angiography procedures, as well as to measure the accumulated radiation dose in the control room. Materials and methods: OSL dosimeters were placed on the eyeglass frames, thyroids, hands, and legs of radiologists performing 20 cerebral angiography procedures, as well as on the wall and window of the control room. Results: Radiologists’ average radiation doses were measured at specific body parts as follows: left eye (49 µSv), right eye (15 µSv), left hands (34 µSv), right hands (16 µSv), left legs (27 µSv), right legs (7 µSv), and thyroid glands (14 µSv). Notably, the received doses remained well within the maximum radiation dose limit established by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). When calculating the maximum number of procedures that can be performed annually, we based it on the limit of the radiation dose that the eyes’ lenses should not exceed. Our findings revealed that the permissible number of procedures determined by the lens radiation dose limit, should not surpass 405 cases annually (equivalent to 34 cases per month). The radiation dose from therapeutic angiography procedures was discovered to be up to 5 times higher than that from diagnostic angiography procedures. The maximum accumulated radiation dose in the control room was 1.18 µSv/hr, which remained below the limit of the Department of Medical Sciences (< 3 µSv/hr). Conclusion: Radiologists receive less radiation from cerebral diagnostic angiography than therapeutic angiography. Organs on the left side were exposed to greater radiation levels than those on the right side. Wearing radiation protection devices during each procedure can reduce radiation exposure and mitigate long-term effects on radiologists. It is recommended to monitor and calculate the accumulated radiation dose of workers to ensure their exposure remains within safety limits.

Comparison of Radiation Doses of Computed Tomography Brain and Pulmonary Angiography with International Commission on Radiological Protection Guidelines: A Descriptive Study

Introduction: Computed Tomography Angiography (CTA) is useful for evaluating and diagnosing conditions related to blood vessels, such as aneurysms, stenosis (narrowing of vessels), vascular malformations, and blockages. It provides valuable information for planning and guiding interventions or surgeries. It is also important to measure patient doses during CTA operations to evaluate and optimise the technique and balance the benefits compared to radiation hazards. Aim: To calculate the CT Dose Index (CTDI), Dose Length Product (DLP), and effective dose for CT brain angiography and CT pulmonary angiography, and also to compare whether the measured values are within the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) recommended levels. Materials and Methods: A retrospective descriptive study was conducted in the Department of Radiodiagnosis at Yenepoya Medical College Hospital Mangaluru, Karnataka, India, from September 2022 to September 2023. A total of 52 data points were collected for CT brain and CT pulmonary angiography examinations, which were acquired before October 2022. Information on CTDI and DLP was collected, and the effective dose was calculated using the conversion factor. The values were then compared with the ICRP reference level. Descriptive statistics, mean, and standard deviation for continuous variables, and frequency and percentage for categorical variables were used. Results: There was a significantly lower value of CTDI, DLP, and effective dose for CT brain angiography and CT pulmonary angiography compared to the ICRP recommended reference levels. The mean CTDI and DLP for CT brain angiography were 111.56 mGy and 1153.31 mGy·cm, and the mean CTDI and DLP for CT pulmonary angiography were 24.56 mGy and 713.74 mGy·cm, respectively. The mean effective dose for CT brain and CT pulmonary angiography was 2.46 mSv and 9.94 mSv, respectively. Conclusion: The measured values were within the recommended values of ICRP regulations. It is recommended that CT brain angiography and CT pulmonary angiography examinations are safer for diagnostic purposes. Optimising scanning protocols, utilising low-dose techniques, and implementing dose monitoring and control are important clinical aspects. Compliance with the guidelines helps to enhance patient care and reduce the risk of radiation-related complications.

Радиологический ущерб: применение новой метрики риска Международной комиссии по радиологической защите

Currently, the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) is discussing the practical application of a new radiation risk metric, called radiological detriment (RD). The concept of RD was first introduced by the ICRP in Publication 22 more than 30 years ago. At the same time, it was important to assess both the risk of radiation induced cancer development and the quality of the future life of patients. Of great interest is the comparison of RD and the lifetime attributable risk (LAR), which is currently widely used in assessing radiation safety. In this study, а comparison of RD and LAR estimates was made for the population living near the fabrication/refabrication module (FRM) of the Pilot Demonstration Energy Complex, that is currently under construction in the city of Seversk, Tomsk region. It is shown that during normal operation of the FRM and after a beyond design basis accident, the RD value is approximately 20% higher than the LAR value. Thus, the LAR value of mortality for residents of the city of Seversk during normal operation of the FRM is 40 times lower than the negligible risk level according to NRB-99/2009 (10Е-6 year-1), while the RD value remains 32 times lower than the negligible level. The simultaneous estimation of the RD and LAR values performed for the first time shows the possibility of their effective use for assessing the level of radiological protection of the population and workers.

Evaluating internal exposure due to intake of 131I at a nuclear medicine centre of Dhaka using bioassay methods

Handling of radioisotopes may cause external and internal contamination to occupational workers while using radiation for medical purposes. This research aims to monitor the internal hazard of occupational workers who handle 131I. Two methods are used: in vivo or direct method and in vitro or indirect method. The in vivo or direct method was performed by assessing thyroid intake with a thyroid uptake monitoring machine. The in vitro or indirect method was performed by assessing urine samples with the help of a gamma-ray spectroscopy practice using a High-Purity Germanium (HPGe) Detector. In this study, fifty-nine thyroid counts and fifty-nine urine samples were collected from seven occupational workers who were in charge of 131I at the National Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Allied Sciences (NINMAS), Dhaka. The result showed that the average annual effective dose of seven workforces from thyroid counts were 0.0208 mSv/y, 0.0180 mSv/y, 0.0135 mSv/y, 0.0169 m Sv/y, 0.0072 mSv/y, 0.0181 mSv/y, 0.0164 mSv/y and in urine samples 0.0832 mSv/y, 0.0770 mSv/y, 0.0732 mSv/y, 0.0693 mSv/y, 0.0715 mSv/y, 0.0662 mSv/y, 0.0708 mSv/y.The total annual effective dose (in vivo and in vitro method) was found among seven workers in average 0.1039 mSv/y, 0.0950 mSv/y, 0.0868 mSv/y, 0.0862 mSv/y, 0.0787 mSv/y, 0.0843 mSv/y, 0.0872 mSv/y. Following the rules of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), the annual limit of effective dose for occupational exposure is 20 mSv per year and the finding values from this research work are lesser than this safety boundary.

Implication of ICRP pediatric reference voxel phantoms on dose assessment of patients in radioiodine therapy

To investigate the impact of the recently released pediatric reference voxel phantoms (0-, 1-, 5-, 10-, 15-year-old males and females) of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) on organ dose estimates for radioactive iodine (RAI) treatment in pediatric patients, we calculated and analyzed pediatric-specific iodine-131 S values (rT ← thyroid) for the 30 radiosensitive organs by conducting Monte Carlo simulations using the Geant4. The gender dependency in the S values was frequently seen for the 15-year-old phantoms with higher S values of female than male. In addition, the age dependency in the S values was observed for most target organs; that is, the S values tend to decrease for older ages (e.g., ∼120 times for the gonads between the adult and newborn) due mainly to the inter-organ distances generally longer for older ages. Moreover, we observed that the iodine-131 S values tend to be significantly greater by up to ∼145.5 times than those of the stylized phantoms that have been widely used for organ dose estimates of pediatric RAI patients. We believe that the pediatric-specific iodine-131 S values (rT ← thyroid) of the ICRP pediatric reference voxel phantoms should be beneficial to improve the dosimetry of pediatric RAI patients.

Оценка радиационных рисков на индивидуальном уровне при многократном прохождении компьютерной томографии на современных компьютерных томографах

Technological developments, as well as software upgrades to existing computerized tomography (CT) scanners, require a continuous review of the methods for estimating radiation risk from CT procedures. According to the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), such assessments should be based on absorbed doses in organs and tissues exposed to radiation. This work is devoted to the study of the influence of various characteristics of the CT (manufacturer, type of scanner, etc.) on the evaluation of radiation risks on the example of multiple exposures in standard CT procedures. As an example, the value of lifetime attribute risk (LAR) and lifetime attributable risk fraction (LARF) for 5 CT scans during the life of a woman aged 20, 25, 30, 45 and 50 years is estimated. The lifetime attributable risk of possible cancer induction was estimated according to the ICRP mathematical model (Publication 103) and using the medical and demographic characteristics of the Russian population, as well as scan protocol data for typical CT scanners of selected models. The results were obtained with the use of old and updated conversion factors for the DLP (Dose Length Product – a measure of the absorbed radiation dose for the whole CT examination) parameter to organ doses from a particular procedure. The lifetime attributable risk of possible cancer induction calculated using organ doses derived from old conversion factors was compared with the risk calculated with data for modern CT scanners with updated conversion factors. The LAR was evaluated over time for one CT examination, two, three, four and five different procedures during the patient's lifetime. It was found that to date such factor as software updates in the field of optimisation of scanning protocols or the CT scanner manufacturer still do not has a significant impact on the radiation risks associated with specific diagnostic procedures. The methods developed by the authors for calculating absorbed doses and radiation risks can be used in planning CT examinations and optimising patient dose loads on any modern CT scanners.

Long‐Term Variation of the Galactic Cosmic Ray Radiation Dose Rates

AbstractIn this work, a model for calculating the galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) radiation dose rate is developed. The model is based on a GCR modulation model, which is established by Shen and Qin, and the fluence‐dose conversion coefficients (FDCCs) published by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). With the model, the radiation absorbed dose rate of GCRs near the lunar surface over long time periods is calculated and compared with the observation data from the Cosmic Ray Telescope for the Effects of Radiation and the Lunar Lander Neutron and Dosimetry. First, the energy spectrum of GCRs at 1 AU in the ecliptic, where the lunar orbit is located, is computed using the GCR modulation model. Then, using the FDCCs of ICRP 123, the absorbed dose rates of 15 human organs/tissues at the lunar orbit position are calculated to represent the general absorbed dose rate of the body (in water). Furthermore, considering the albedo radiation (excluding neutrons) and using the water‐silicon conversion coefficients, the total absorbed dose rates of GCRs near the lunar surface (in silicon) are calculated, it is shown that our modeling results generally agree with the observations from spacecraft. This work is useful for future manned space exploration to the Moon or other celestial bodies in the solar system.

Evaluation of radiation dose and establishment of local DRLs for adult during abdominopelvic CT scan imaging for university hospital centers, Morocco

Objective: In this study, we have planned to establish the local Diagnostic Reference Levels (DRLs) for the five University Hospital Centers in Morocco and to propose a national DRL for abdominopelvic CT examinations for adult patients. Materials and methods: Data were collected using a specially designed form, which included patient demographics, exposure parameters and dosimetric indicators such as dose-length product (DLP) and CT volume dose index (CTDIvol). The establishment of local and national DRL in terms of CTDIvol and DLP was carried out in accordance with the methodology described in Report 135 of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). The effective dose was assessed using the DLP and the dose conversion factor appropriate for this location. Results: A total of 300 patients undergoing abdominopelvic examinations at the five Moroccan university hospitals were collected for this study. Patients' mean age, weight and BMI were (50.97 ± 15.05) years (67.94 ± 11.41) Kg and (25.71 ± 3.03) Kg/m2 respectively. The local DRL, in terms of DLP were 551.56, 2293.33, 709.02, 843.52 and 1059.62 mGy-cm and in terms of CTDIvol were 11,05, 46,40, 13,14, 12,01, 9,88 mGy respectively for UHC-1, UHC-2, UHC-3, UHC-4 and UHC-5 hospitals. The proposed National DRL, defined as a single value for the 75th percentile on the aggregation of data from the five centers, for abdominopelvic scan CT was 773.20 mGy.cm and 12.05 mGy for DLP and CTDIvol, respectively. Conclusion: The Moroccan DRL was comparable to those of other countries, ranking 10th among 21 countries. However, we are still seeking to reduce and optimize radiation dose while maintaining good image quality for reliable diagnosis, and this can be achieved by enhancing radiographers' and radiologists' knowledge of radiation protection, protocol justification, and optimization through rigorous hospital radiation audits at national level.

Could the Norms for International Radiation Protection Be a Model for Pharmaceuticals?

There is no international norm-setting mechanism for pharmaceutical registration. By contrast, the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) has been recommending widely respected norms for X-rays and radioactive isotopes in medical and other uses for almost a century. It does so with no legal authority on the basis of collaborative deliberations by a self-selected group that includes experts concerned about both health effects and the benefits of ionizing radiation. Such an “epistemic group” has advantages over the more usual adversarial processes. It can evaluate the scientific evidence more objectively, it can adapt more rapidly to technological progress, and it can judge benefits as well as risks. Forming such normative epistemic groups for at least some of the rapidly growing number of new pharmaceuticals would avoid duplication and contribute to harmonizing pharmaceutical registration worldwide.

Individual dosimetry as an element of health prevention for employees exposed to ionizing radiation

The paper presents the current radiation protection standards, in line with the recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), and their evolution over the years based on new knowledge about the biological effects of ionizing radiation and the changing attitude of people to the accepted risk. The work takes into account in particular the role of the dose limit principle and individual dose measurements in activities aimed at health prevention of individual people occupationally exposed to ionizing radiation. Med Pr Work Health Saf. 2023;74(6):527-39.

Age-Dependent Changes in Effective Dose in Pediatric Brain CT: Comparisons of Estimation Methods.

The effective dose (ED) in computed tomography (CT) may be calculated by multiplying the dose-length product (DLP) by a conversion factor. As children grow, automatic exposure control increases the DLP, while the conversion factor decreases; these two changes affect the ED in opposite ways. The aim of this study was to investigate the methods of ED estimation according to age in pediatric brain CT. We retrospectively analyzed 980 brain CT scans performed for various clinical indications in children. The conversion factor at each age, in integer years, was determined based on the values at 0, 1, 5, and 10 years provided by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), using a curve (curve method) or lines (linear method). In the simple method, the ED was estimated using the ICRP conversion factor for the closest age. We also analyzed the ED estimated by a radiation dose management system. Although the median DLP at each age increased with age, the median ED estimated by the curve method was highest at 0 years, decreased with age, and then plateaued at 9 years. The linear method yielded mildly different results, especially at 2 and 3 years. The ED estimated by the simple method or the radiation dose management system showed inconsistent, up-and-down changes with age. In conclusion, the ED in pediatric brain CT decreases with age despite increased DLP. Determination of the conversion factor at each age using a curve is expected to contribute to estimating the ED in pediatric CT according to age.

Assessment of Environmental Background Gamma Radiation Variation in Minna Area of Nigeria

Radiation has been acknowledged to be responsible for deleterious conditions in living tissues. Hence, environmental background gamma radiation (BGR) measurement is crucial from an environmental and health perspective. In this study, due to the absence of comprehensive background gamma radiation data and the increasing numbers of anthropogenic activities that could increase the BGR level, such as where mining activities are active. The BGR in the Minna area of Niger State, Nigeria, was measured and analyzed in this study. In-situ measurement of the background gamma radiation level was carried out using a well-calibrated portable handheld GQ GMC-500 Plus nuclear radiation detector at an elevation of about 1.0 m above ground level. A global positioning system from Garmin (GPSmap 78s) was adopted for identifying geographical locations. A total of 1172 points were surveyed across the study area for background environmental radiation. The BGR values ranged from 0.102 to 0.147 μSv/h, with an overall mean value of 0.126 μSv/h. The average measured dose rate was more than twice the reported world average value of 0.059 μSv/h. The annual effective dose equivalent (AEDE) for the research area was calculated to be 0.221 mSv/y on average. The mean AEDE is lower than the ICRP recommended limit. This shows that the population of the Minna area is radiologically safe based on the estimated AEDE value. Similarly, the excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) value ranged from 0.626 × 10−3 to 0.901 × 10−3 mSv/y with a mean value of 0.774 ± 0.09 × 10−3 mSv/y. The mean value of AEDE is below the 0.24 mSv/y permissible limits as recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). The mean ELCR value exceeds the average world value of 0.29 × 10−3. Also, the mean organ dose values estimated for the whole body, liver, kidney, testes, bone marrow, ovaries, and lungs are 0.150 ± 0.02, 0.102 ± 0.01, 0.137 ± 0.02, 0.181 ± 0.02, 0.152 ± 0.02, 0.128 ± 0.02 and 0.141 ± 0.02 mSv/y respectively. The differences in the calculated mean of BGR were attributed to natural and human factors. Geological variation is a fundamental factor that influences the changes in BGR. Human activities, mining, building materials, and the use of phosphate fertilizers in agricultural practices are responsible for the differences in BGR. The ELCR implies that terrestrial gamma radiation does not pose any immediate radiological health effects on residents of the area, but there is a tendency for long-term health hazards in the future, such as cancer, due to the dose accumulated.

Measurement of energy and directional distribution of neutron ambient dose equivalent for the [formula omitted]Li(p,n)[formula omitted]Be reaction

Double differential neutron fluence distributions were measured in the 7Li(p,n)7Be reaction for proton beam energies 7, 9 and 12 MeV. Seven liquid scintillator based detectors were employed to measure neutron fluence distributions using the Time of Flight technique. Neutron ambient dose equivalents were determined from the measured fluence distribution using ICRP (International Commission on Radiological Protection) recommended fluence to dose equivalent conversion coefficients. Neutron dose equivalents were also measured using a conventional BF3 detector based REM counter. Ambient dose equivalent measured by the REM counter is found to be in agreement with that determined from the neutron fluence spectra within their uncertainties. Angular distributions of the ambient dose equivalents were also determined from the measured fluence distributions at different angles.

Development of a methodology for assessing radiological dose due to use of NORM sludge as fertilizer

In Europe, the general obligation to recycle drives for increased reuse of residues containing Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM). In agriculture, this has led to the reuse of sludge produced by groundwater filtration facilities as a means of fertilization. In the frame of the RadoNorm project, a methodology was developed for dose assessment of agricultural workers and other members of the public living near agricultural fields in which NORM-containing sludge is applied. Appropriate exposure scenarios were identified and modelled for each relevant NORM decay segment of both U-238 and Th-232 series, as well as for K-40. Dose assessments were performed using the software RESRAD-ONSITE with dose coefficients for external and internal exposure taken from the latest publications from the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). The objective was to develop a generic methodology to quantify exposure and to obtain screening values – so-called Operational Levels (OLs). These OLs pertain to the activity concentration of natural radionuclides (in terms of kBq kg−1) present in sludge that is reused in agriculture, for which dose criterion of 1 mSv year−1 is complied with. OLs can be used as screening tools by an authority/operator, even non-experts in the field of radiation protection.Results showed that the most critical decay segments are Ra-226+ and Ra-228+, for which OLs of the order of 1 kBq kg−1 were estimated. For all the other radionuclides, the calculated OLs are much higher than the activity concentrations typically found in sludge from water treatment facilities, and the radiological impact expected is well-below 1 mSv year−1. The methodology and results of this study could contribute to the update of the Clearance Levels and discharge levels reported in the European guidelines RP 122 Part II and RP 135, respectively.

Patient Dose Estimation in Computed Tomography-Guided Biopsy Procedures.

This study establishes typical Diagnostic Reference Levels (DRL) values and assesses patient doses in computed tomography (CT)-guided biopsy procedures. The Effective Dose (ED), Entrance Skin Dose (ESD), and Size-Specific Dose Estimate (SSDE) were calculated using the relevant literature-derived conversion factors. A retrospective analysis of 226 CT-guided biopsies across five categories (Iliac bone, liver, lung, mediastinum, and para-aortic lymph nodes) was conducted. Typical DRL values were computed as median distributions, following guidelines from the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) Publication 135. DRLs for helical mode CT acquisitions were set at 9.7 mGy for Iliac bone, 8.9 mGy for liver, 8.8 mGy for lung, 7.9 mGy for mediastinal mass, and 9 mGy for para-aortic lymph nodes biopsies. In contrast, DRLs for biopsy acquisitions were 7.3 mGy, 7.7 mGy, 5.6 mGy, 5.6 mGy, and 7.4 mGy, respectively. Median SSDE values varied from 7.6 mGy to 10 mGy for biopsy acquisitions and from 11.3 mGy to 12.6 mGy for helical scans. Median ED values ranged from 1.6 mSv to 5.7 mSv for biopsy scans and from 3.9 mSv to 9.3 mSv for helical scans. The study highlights the significance of using DRLs for optimizing CT-guided biopsy procedures, revealing notable variations in radiation exposure between helical scans covering entire anatomical regions and localized biopsy acquisitions.

Eye radiation dose from breast cancer screening using full field digital mammography and digital breast tomosynthesis: A phantom study

IntroductionThe eye lens is recently classified as one of the most radiosensitive tissues by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), and it has been suggested that the eye lens receives radiation dose during mammography due to scatter radiation. The aim of this study was to investigate the radiation dose received by the lens of the clients’ eye from Full Field Digital Mammography (FFDM) and Digital Breast Tomosynthesis (DBT) screening. MethodsThe eye radiation dose received by ATOM dosimetry phantom was estimated with thermo-luminescent dosemeters (TLDs). One TLD was utilised for each eye. A breast phantom was exposed for four-view screening mammography using 16 FFDM machines and one DBT machine. The breast phantom was exposed three times for each mammographic position and an average TLD dose reading was considered to minimise random error. ResultsFor four-view FFDM screening, the phantom eye radiation dose ranges from 0.013 mGy to 0.029 mGy with a mean±sd of 0.019 ± 0.005 mGy. A higher eye radiation dose of 0.041 mGy was recorded from four-view DBT screening. The statistical analysis demonstrated that the eye lens radiation dose is strongly and significantly correlated to breast organ dose and X-ray tube voltage. ConclusionThe phantom eye lens was exposed to scatter radiation from FFDM and DBT screening. The measured dose via the four-view DBT screening was higher than the four-view FFDM screening, but sits below the internationally acceptable ranges. If the findings of our paper hold true in practice, then the risk to the lens of the eyes for women attending breast screening is acceptable. Implications for practiceThe new lens radiation dose levels recommended by the ICRP necessitate the reevaluation of eye radiation dose from different radiographic examinations, especially those used for screening purpose where healthy individuals involved.

Ethical and societal aspects of radiological protection for offspring and next generations

Purpose Over the last decade or so, ethical and societal aspects of radiological protection have received increasing attention. This is also reflected in the publications of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). The current paper aims at identifying relevant ethical and societal topics which should receive attention in the context of radiological protection for offspring and next generations. Materials and Methods We present a non-comprehensive review of the subject, based on presentation made at an ICRP workshop in Budapest in 2022. We first discuss the ethical values promoted by ICRP, and the application of these values in cases of (potential) pre-conceptual and prenatal radiation exposures. We then consider experience gained after the Fukushima accident indicating particular societal concerns about the health effects of such exposures. Results and Conclusions Beneficence/non-maleficence, prudence, justice and dignity, the “core values” of the system of radiological protection have special roles to play when heritable and/or in utero effects are to be considered. Prudence, in particular, must be taken account of in view of the fact that solid scientific data in humans are largely lacking in this area, and it is necessary to rely on insights from animal experiments as well as theoretical considerations. As regards societal considerations, the perception of risk among (potentially) affected populations needs to be taken seriously. Accountability, transparency, and inclusivity, the “procedural values” promoted by ICRP for the practical implementation of the system of radiological protection play a central role in overcoming skepticism and creating trust. Stakeholder involvement should emphasize cooperation and dialogue, which allows for the joint evaluation of an exposure situation by experts and affected people.

Radiological hazard assessment for human from nuclear power plant effluent released under normal operation scenario (hypothetical case study)

This paper presents an assessment of the radiological hazard for humans from nuclear power plant effluent released into a river under normal operation scenarios (NOS). A hypothetical case study was conducted to estimate the annual effective dose (AED) received by the general public due to the discharge of effluent from the nuclear power plant. The results indicate that the radiological hazard for humans from nuclear power plant effluent released under (NOS) is minimal. The estimated AED received by the general public was found to be below 0.1 mSv/year, which is well below the annual dose limit of 1 mSv/y set by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). The excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) detected remained within acceptable limits. These results estimated that nuclear power can be a safe and reliable source of energy when operated in accordance with established safety protocols. The study revealed that the concentration of 137Cs in sediments was higher than that of other radionuclides studied, leading to increased potential hazards over time. Overall, this study provides valuable information on the radiological hazard associated with nuclear power plant effluent released into a river under (NOS), which can be useful in the development of radiation protection strategies for nuclear power plants and in the communication of the risks associated with nuclear power to the public.