International Climate Agreements Research Articles

Investors reward countries for participating in climate agreements

International climate agreements are one of the best-known approaches to coordinating climate actions among governments but face a free-rider problem, where individual governments lack sufficient incentives to reduce emissions. This study examines the role of investors in providing rewards to governments through sovereign bond yields to encourage climate cooperation and reduce emission intensity. Using a difference-in-differences method, this study examines how sovereign bond yields change around the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement. The findings show that investors reward governments committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions with a 4 to 5 basis point decrease in sovereign bond yields. This suggests that investors better compensate countries making significant commitments to climate agreements, helping mitigate the free-rider problem and encouraging effective climate action.

Carbon Footprint Assessment: Case Studies for Hemp-Based Eco-Concrete Masonry Blocks

In recent times, climate change has become more evident than ever, and measures to slow down its negative effects are imperative for the future of the world. The scientific and economic communities of countries around the world, under the force of international climate agreements, are identifying solutions to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by establishing appropriate measures and developing new strategies. In the context of these objectives, the effort to identify eco-sustainable practices for the construction industry is growing significantly. Recently, much research has focused on solutions for producing green building materials, as well as applying circular economy principles to achieve a balance between anthropogenic emissions and absorptions by greenhouse gas absorbers. The relevant indicators of the level of achievement of these major objectives can be identified, already from the construction design phase, with the help of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) analysis. This paper presents a series of environmental impact analyses for an eco-friendly solution of precast concrete masonry blocks. Ecological concrete is manufactured with aggregates from biological waste resulting from hemp crops. Impact assessments were performed with the SimaPro 9.5 software application. Research has shown that in the production chain, which includes the materials resulting from the recycling and reuse of hemp concrete blocks, the contribution to the effort to achieve neutrality in terms of global warming is significant. The Cradle-to-Cradle scenario revealed that the recycling of hemp concrete masonry blocks at the end of their use, for a functional unit of 0.5 m3, has a GHG emission of 33.5228 [kg CO2-eq] and CO2 uptakes can reach the negative value of −53.8397 [kg CO2-eq]. Thus, the balance of GHG emissions is negative, with values of approximately −20.3169 [kg CO2-eq]. The LCA analyses also reflect a decreased damage to human health, natural resources, and biodiversity when hemp concrete is used for masonry blocks.

Measuring and improving the cradle-to-grave environmental performance of urological procedures.

An urgent need for societal transformation exists to reduce the environmental impact of humanity, because environmental healthaffects human health. Health care causes ~5% of global greenhouse gas emissions and other substantial and ongoing environmental harms. Thus, health-care professionals and managers must lead ongoing efforts to improve the environmental performance of health systems. Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a methodology that enables estimation of environmental impacts of products and processes. It models environmental effects from 'cradle' (raw material extraction) to 'grave' (end of useful life) and conventionally reports a range of different impact categories. LCA is a valuable tool when used appropriately. Maximizing its utility requires rational assumptions alongside careful consideration of system boundaries and data sources. Well-executed LCAs are detailed and transparently reported, enabling findings to be adapted or generalized to different settings. Attention should be given to modelling mitigation solutions in LCAs. This important step can guide health-care systems towards new and innovative solutions that embed progress towards international climate agreements. Many urological conditions are common, recurrent or chronic, requiring resource-intensive management with large associated environmental impacts. LCAs in urology have predominantly focussed on greenhouse gas emissions and have enabled identification of modifiable 'hotspots' including electricityuse, travel, single-use items, irrigation, reprocessing and waste incineration. However, the methodological and reporting quality of published urology LCAs generally requires improvement and standardization. Health-care evaluation and commissioning frameworks that value LCA findings alongside clinical outcomes and cost could accelerate sustainable innovations. Rapid implementation strategies for known environmentally sustainable solutions are also needed.

Land-Based Carbon Effects and Human Well-Being Nexus

In light of international climate agreements and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), there is a growing need to enhance the understanding of the linkages among land use/cover change (LUCC) and its carbon effects (CEs), as well as human well-being (HW). While existing studies have primarily focused on the impacts of LUCC on CEs or ecosystem services, there remains a gap in systematically elucidating the complex relationships among LUCC, CEs, and HW. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the nexus between land-based CEs and HW, examining: (1) the correlation between LUCC and CEs, encompassing methodologies for investigating LUCC CEs; (2) the association between CEs and HW, introducing the concept of “low-carbon human well-being” and evaluation framework; and (3) the proposed framework of “LUCC-CEs-HW,” which delves into the intricate connections among three elements. The study identifies research gaps and outlines potential future directions, including assessments of LUCC CEs and low-carbon HW, exploration of the “LUCC-CEs-HW” nexus, and the development of standardized measurement approaches. Key opportunities for further investigation include establishing a unified evaluation index system and developing scalable methods. This paper elucidates the relationships among LUCC, CEs, and HW, offering insights for future works.

The Science, Engineering, and Validation of Marine Carbon Dioxide Removal and Storage.

Scenarios to stabilize global climate and meet international climate agreements require rapid reductions in human carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, often augmented by substantial carbon dioxide removal (CDR) from the atmosphere. While some ocean-based removal techniques show potential promise as part of a broader CDR and decarbonization portfolio, no marine approach is ready yet for deployment at scale because of gaps in both scientific and engineering knowledge. Marine CDR spans a wide range of biotic and abiotic methods, with both common and technique-specific limitations. Further targeted research is needed on CDR efficacy, permanence, and additionality as well as on robust validation methods-measurement, monitoring, reporting, and verification-that are essential to demonstrate the safe removal and long-term storage of CO2. Engineering studies are needed on constraints including scalability, costs, resource inputs, energy demands, and technical readiness. Research on possible co-benefits, ocean acidification effects, environmental and social impacts, and governance is also required.

The slow implementation of sustainable innovations in the asphalt paving sector: the role of actors and their interactions

International climate agreements and government policies, push the road construction industry towards more sustainable practices using alternative materials, new production techniques, and more efficient construction processes. Despite the broad availability of these sustainable solutions, their adoption is slow and uncertain. The reasons behind this remain unclear. This study employs a system innovation perspective to analyze the process that leads to the implementation of sustainable innovations in the Dutch asphalt paving sector. By exploring actors’ roles and their interactions at different stages of the process, we aim to identify key aspects influencing the pace and outcome of the innovation implementation process in the industry. The results highlight that (1) the asphalt paving sector is anchored in a project perspective that often overlooks long-term sustainability goals, (2) several key innovation roles are not fully fulfilled, and the absence of a coordinating role is leading to misunderstandings, and (3) monitoring at both the project and sector levels is lacking; there is no holistic assessment of the overall impact of innovations. Overall, the findings suggest that sustainable innovation processes in Dutch asphalt paving remain confined to the niche level, which can be overcome by redistributing actors' responsibilities, addressing the lack of system monitoring, and overcoming the project perspective could help address the challenges in the process.

Implications of Climate Change Litigation for Environmental Law and Policy in Ghana

Purpose: The aim of the study was to examine implications of climate change litigation for environmental law and policy in Ghana Methodology: This study adopted a desk methodology. A desk study research design is commonly known as secondary data collection. This is basically collecting data from existing resources preferably because of its low cost advantage as compared to a field research. Our current study looked into already published studies and reports as the data was easily accessed through online journals and libraries. Findings: The study found that the implications of climate change litigation for environmental law and policy in Ghana underscore the urgent need for robust legal frameworks and adaptive policy responses to address the multifaceted challenges posed by climate change. While Ghana has made strides in enacting environmental legislation and participating in international climate agreements, the increasing frequency and severity of climate-related impacts necessitate greater legal clarity, enforcement mechanisms, and stakeholder engagement to enhance climate resilience and adaptation efforts. Climate change litigation provides a crucial avenue for affected communities, civil society organizations, and environmental advocates to hold governments and corporations accountable for their contributions to climate change and their obligations to protect the environment and uphold human rights. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: Legal Mobilization Theory, Policy Diffusion Theory & Ecological Modernization Theory may be used to anchor future studies on implications of climate change litigation for environmental law and policy in Ghana. Encourage strategic litigation that targets key actors, industries, and policy arenas to maximize the impact of legal interventions on environmental protection and climate action. This involves identifying leverage points within existing legal frameworks and leveraging innovative legal strategies, such as public trust doctrines and rights-based approaches, to advance environmental objectives. Foster greater integration of climate change litigation outcomes into national and international environmental policy-making processes. Governments and intergovernmental organizations should proactively incorporate legal precedents, court decisions, and settlement agreements into policy development, implementation, and evaluation.

DEFINITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE ECONOMIC CATEGORY «CLIMATE FINANCE»

Climate finance is a crucial element in addressing global warming and climate change. The study highlights the importance of defining climate finance to ensure effective monitoring and implementation of international climate agreements. The study aims to explore the essence and content of climate finance, analyze existing approaches to its definition, and propose a definition of the term «climate finance» as an economic category. An analytical method was employed to examine scientific publications, reports from international organizations, and other sources of information. A systematic approach was used to classify and analyze various aspects of climate finance. The study employs a comprehensive review of existing literature, international agreements, and organizational reports to analyze the various definitions and components of climate finance. The analysis reveals that there is no single, universally accepted definition of climate finance. Different international organizations and researchers offer varying definitions, which can lead to misunderstandings and inconsistencies in monitoring and implementing climate-related financial flows. The proposed definition aims to bridge these gaps by providing a broad yet precise conceptual framework for climate finance. The study highlights the need for continuous collaboration between international organizations and the scientific community to refine and update the definition of climate finance as new technologies and approaches emerge. The author concludes that a clear and comprehensive definition of climate finance is essential for the effective implementation of climate policies and agreements. The proposed definition provides a foundation for further research and development in this field, ensuring that climate finance contributes to sustainable development and the mitigation of climate change impacts

Political influence on international climate agreements with border carbon adjustment

We study the influence of industrial lobbying on national climate policies and the formation of an international environmental agreement if the coalition countries use border carbon adjustments to protect domestic producers. We find that the effects of this political influence crucially depend on the distribution of carbon tax revenues. If these are transferred to the households, lobbying distorts carbon taxes downwards to reduce the tax burden and does not affect coalition sizes. This leads to higher emissions and lower welfare. By contrast, if tax revenues are given back to the firms, lobbies in the outsider countries favor carbon taxes, whereas lobbies in the coalition countries favor carbon subsidies to raise the international commodity price. This reduces the tax difference and the welfare difference between the countries, which reduces the free-rider incentives. Then, lobbying stabilizes the grand coalition and reduces global emissions compared to a “perfect” world without lobbying if the political influence is sufficiently strong.

Climate Change as a New Factor of International Relations

This article explores the escalating impact of climate change and the global green transition on international relations, particularly in the aftermath of the Paris Agreement in 2015. While physical risks stemming directly from climate change consequences are a concern, the rise of transition risks associated with the global green shift poses significant threats to societies, political systems, and economies. The current emissions reduction targets outlined in the Paris Agreement are deemed inadequate to address the mounting physical risks, underscoring the imperative of enhancing states’ climate security. Transition risks are intricately linked to the fragmentation of global politics, driven by varying climate ambitions and disagreements on decarbonization methods among states. Fault lines emerge based on factors such as fossil fuel abundance, states’ positions in energy geopolitics, socio-economic development levels, utilization of green transition opportunities, and participation in international climate agreements. In this context, Russia confronts numerous risks, compelling the nation to articulate and advocate its unique vision of decarbonization while fostering alliances with non-Western states in this critical domain.

Pension funds and fossil fuel phase-out: historical developments and limitations of pension climate strategies

Despite the decades of international climate negotiations and several landmark agreements, global efforts to date to restrict fossil fuel production in line with climate targets have been unsuccessful. As national and international policies continue to fall short of phasing out fossil fuels, increasing attention has been paid to non-state actors, like pension funds, as a potential source of more ambitious climate action. As major asset owners, large shareholders in fossil fuel companies, and historically activist investors, pension funds are theoretically well-placed to contribute to phasing out fossil fuels. Despite growing recognition of this potential role for pension funds and other major investors in climate change mitigation, there has been little attention to pension funds’ historical record on climate change, or to how their climate strategies have developed and changed over time. This paper examines how the climate strategies of the largest US and European pension funds have evolved in relation to key developments in international climate agreements and the extent to which these strategies contribute to restricting fossil fuel supply. Through an analysis of the annual, governance, and sustainability reports of 6 pension funds from 1997 to 2022, we examine the strategies pension funds have adopted to address both climate change and fossil fuels. Pension funds have demonstrated responsiveness to the signals of international climate agreements, adopting a range of strategies with respect to climate change (amongst others, integrating ESG principles, increasing their sustainable investments, and setting net zero goals). Their explicit attention to fossil fuels and contribution to supply-side interventions take the form of systematic shareholder engagement, (selective) divestment, and lobbying policymakers. While pension fund climate action is growing , the ambition of their strategies is not aligned with a rapid fossil fuel phaseout; their efforts are often focussed on improving disclosure and transparency and demonstrate complacency with minimal improvements from fossil fuel companies. If pension funds are to significantly contribute to phasing out fossil fuels, redefining pension fund responsibilities and the traditional shareholder role will likely be required.

Examining the Effectiveness of International Climate Agreements in Fostering Global Cooperation and Collective Action Towards Climate Change Mitigation in Nigeria

This paper aims to examine the role of international climate agreements in encouraging cooperative action and facilitating climate-change mitigation efforts in Nigeria. It begins by underscoring the pressing necessity of addressing climate change as one of the most significant challenges confronting humanity in the 21st century. It emphasizes the vital role of international climate agreements in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, promoting sustainable growth, and supporting vulnerable nations in mitigating the consequences of climate change. Given that Nigeria is highly susceptible to the adverse effects of climate change, it is exposed to significant risks to the environment, economy, and socioeconomic development. This paper discusses Nigeria’s commitment to climate change mitigation through its participation in international agreements such as the UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement. It evaluates Nigeria’s progress in implementing climate change mitigation strategies and collaborative efforts with global partners. Furthermore, the concept of collective action theory is introduced, highlighting its relevance in tackling global challenges such as climate change. Additionally, this paper emphasizes that collective action is essential in addressing climate change, as it entails cooperative efforts among individuals, groups, and countries to achieve common objectives. It delves into how collective action theory provides valuable insights into the efficacy of international climate agreements and the need for international collaboration to develop comprehensive solutions. This paper identifies the factors that influence the success or failure of climate agreements in Nigeria and underscores the importance of in-depth studies to comprehend their impact on international partnerships and collective action. It concludes by discussing the implications of the research findings for future policy and decision-making, to contribute to more effective global climate change mitigation strategies. Climate change has emerged as one of the most pressing challenges faced by humanity in the 21st century. Its impact is far-reaching, affecting ecosystems, economies, and human well-being worldwide. Recognizing the urgency of addressing this global issue, international climate agreements have been established to foster global cooperation and collective action.[1]These agreements aim at mitigating climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions, promoting sustainable development, and supporting vulnerable nations in adapting to climate change. In Nigeria, a country highly vulnerable to climate change impacts, it is crucial to examine the effectiveness of international climate agreements in fostering collective action and facilitating climate-change mitigation efforts.[2] Nigeria, located in West Africa, is particularly susceptible to climate-related risks such as rising temperatures, increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, sea-level rise, and desertification.[3]These challenges pose significant threats to the country’s agriculture, water resources, health systems, and overall socioeconomic stability.[4] To reduce the effects of climate change, nations must work together and take coordinated action. International climate agreements are essential for promoting cooperation among nations and for group efforts to mitigate climate change. These agreements provide forums for nations to coordinate efforts to cut greenhouse gas emissions, prepare for climate change, set goals, and share resources and expertise.[5] Nigeria has acknowledged the significance of taking part in these agreements and implementing sustainable policies to address the climate crisis, given its status as a developing country that is extremely vulnerable to the effects of climate change.[6] The issue is that there is currently a dearth of in-depth studies that carefully examine how international climate agreements affect international collaboration and group action, particularly in Nigeria.[7]It is imperative for policymakers, researchers, and stakeholders engaged in climate change mitigation initiatives in Nigeria to understand the efficacy of these agreements.[8] This paper offers important insights into boosting the efficacy of international climate agreements in Nigeria and eventually contributing to more successful global climate change mitigation strategies by identifying the strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement.

Carbon Capture and Storage – Legal and Policy Considerations for Sustainable Energy Solutions

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) has become a vital technological advancement in the fight against climate change by lowering greenhouse gas emissions from energy generation and industrial operations. However, the development and application of CCS technologies confront formidable legal and policy obstacles despite their potential to help achieve global carbon reduction goals. This study examines the legislative and policy tools required to support the implementation of CCS as a sustainable energy choice. To solve these issues, it evaluates national, regional, and international legal methods and the regulatory gaps that prevent CCS projects from being widely implemented. The analysis focuses on identifying the factors that hinder and facilitate the deployment of CCS, including environmental regulations, intellectual property rights, liability concerns, and public participation. The research also examines how current international climate agreements, like the Paris Agreement, impact CCS’s regulatory environment. This paper identifies optimal methods for establishing a favorable legal environment by evaluating case studies from nations with advanced CCS efforts. Lastly, suggestions are made for coordinating legislative and regulatory frameworks so that CCS can significantly contribute to realizing sustainable energy transitions.

Sustainable Societal Transformation: Shaping Renewable Energy Technologies in Transport

Traditional transportation systems are increasingly scrutinized for their environmental footprint, driving the need for sustainable alternatives. Recent developments in renewable energy technologies have paved the way for Electric Vehicles, Hydrogen Fuel Cells, Biofuels, Solar-Powered Vehicles, and Hybrid Systems, all of which offer environmentally-friendly solutions. However, the successful integration of these technologies into existing transport systems presents challenges such as infrastructure development, policymaking, public perception, and societal acceptance. Sustainable transportation encompasses more than technology and economics. It addresses societal inclusivity, environmental conservation, and long-term viability. Social equality ensures equitable access to transport, economic considerations highlight short-term costs and long-term benefits, and health and well-being are affected by sustainable transportation patterns. Community engagement, though challenging, is essential to craft locally tailored solutions and foster a collective sense of ownership. These facets form the foundation for a greener, healthier, and more inclusive transport system. The global shift towards renewable transport technologies is multifaceted, integrating political, economic, social, technological, environmental, and legal dimensions. Using the PESTEL method, the complex transition towards renewable transport technologies can be understood, especially in contexts like Ukraine. Given its unique socio-political landscape, Ukraine's move towards sustainable transport is influenced by multiple factors, including international climate agreements, economic restructuring, public perception, and technological advancements. Ukraine's transport sector, heavily reliant on fossil fuels, has the potential to transform using its abundant renewable resources. Tapping into these resources can offer numerous benefits, though technological and infrastructural challenges persist. Strategic investments and embracing renewable technologies are key for Ukraine to build a sustainable transport and societal framework.

Low-carbon development of Russia: problems and prospects

This publication presents the results of research aiming to study the possibilities of promoting measures that could help reduce the impact on climate by replacing fossil fuels with alternative, carbon-free (renewable) energy sources, and implementing technological innovations. The study examines long-term scenarios for greenhouse gas emissions in Russia and their implications for the environment, public health and other spheres. Based on the results of the analysis, it offers recommendations on possible strategies to mitigate the impact on climate over the periods up to 2030 and 2050. These recommendations can serve the purpose of designing policies that will contribute to the implementation of the international climate agreement adopted in December 2015 at the 21st Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC in Paris.

International Climate Agreements under the Threat of Solar Geoengineering

International Climate Agreements under the Threat of Solar Geoengineering

Whispers in the Wind: Ethical dimensions of social conflict in offshore wind

The current European energy crisis in combination with the international climate agreements dictate the need for strong investment in green energy. Among others, offshore wind is widely considered an efficient low-impact low-carbon technology. Despite the positive institutional landscape for the adoption of this form of energy generation, European nations witness societal resistance to its deployment. This paper explores the critical ethical dimensions of offshore wind fuelling relevant societal controversies surrounding its deployment and governance. I argue that at the core of most societal disputes lay normative issues shaping and contributing to the polarisation of the discourses and affecting the viability of initiatives. The method applied to characterise the social controversies is ethical analysis. Using the conceptualisation of the three tenets of energy justice-distributive, procedural, and recognition - I uncover the prevailing justice dimensions present in thematic literature and specific European offshore wind initiatives (Taggen park and Utsira Nord). I also use ethical analysis to characterise further normative implications of offshore wind. At the end, I offer normative insights on how project developers and policymakers can lower the barriers to offshore wind energy implementation and improve governance mechanisms.

Renewable Energy as a Constitutional Commitment: An Analytical Study Considering. The Egyptian Constitution and International Agreements

Objective: This study examines the transition to clean energy in Egypt as a constitutional commitment mandated by the Egyptian Constitution and as an international demand emphasized by numerous international agreements due to the increasing environmental risks of greenhouse gas emissions.
 
 Methods: This study utilizes a descriptive-analytical approach to describe and analyze the current reality of renewable energy in accordance with the current Egyptian Constitution and international demands for environmental protection. The study relies on a combination of primary and secondary sources, as well as scientific publications, to support the analysis and draw conclusions.
 
 Results: The study findings indicate that international climate agreements cannot achieve their objectives unless parallel national mechanisms are established to serve the same goal. The study also confirms that the legislative system in a country can significantly contribute to climate protection goals, which are a global demand, by creating a conducive legislative environment for transitioning to clean energy. Additionally, transitioning to clean energy is identified as the most effective method to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, as long as there is societal awareness about environmental protection. Lastly, the study underscores the need for continuous and sustainable development of national and international legislations related to renewable and clean energy to support the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, which have become a global environmental threat.
 
 Suggestions: It is recommended to implement comprehensive legislative reforms to support innovation and technological transformation in the renewable energy sector and develop policies to facilitate the implementation of renewable energy and streamline administrative processes. Enhancing environmental awareness and education programs is essential to promote interest in clean energy, while continuously evaluating and adapting legislative and regulatory standards is necessary to address evolving challenges. Furthermore, encouraging public-private partnerships and offering incentives to attract investment in clean energy projects is also encouraged.

Tropical blue carbon: solutions and perspectives for valuations of carbon sequestration

Tropical marine ecosystems provide a wide range of provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural services to millions of people. They also largely contribute to blue carbon sequestration. Mangroves, seaweeds, and seagrass habitats are important because they store large amounts of organic carbon while fish play a fundamental role in the carbon transport to deep waters. Protecting and restoring tropical marine ecosystems is of great value to society because their decline impairs the vital services they provide, such as coastal protection and seafood supplies. In this marine policy paper, we present options for enhancing blue carbon sequestration in tropical coastal areas. In addition, we outline the economic value of four components of coastal ecosystems (mangroves, seagrass beds, seaweed forests and fish) and discuss the economic levers society can apply to ensure the end of the current gross mismanagement of tropical blue carbon ecosystems. Market-based solutions, such as carbon taxes or fines for violations that use the ‘polluter pays' principle, can be very effective in achieving national or international climate agreements. Private investment can also finance the preservation of blue carbon ecosystems. One widely known financing method for blue carbon conservation, particularly of mangroves, is the use of municipal bonds, which can be issued like traditional bonds to finance the day-to-day obligations of cities, states and counties. Non-philanthropic investments can also be used in order to protect these ecosystems, such as debt-for-nature swaps and the improved application of regulatory frameworks. Overall, the protection of tropical marine ecosystems is an ecological imperative and should also be seen as an opportunity for new revenue streams and debt reduction for countries worldwide.

Contemporary Issues Confronting International Carbon Markets: Critical Reviews

This paper conducts critical reviews of the contemporary issues confronting the emission trading systems as international carbon markets. The reviews focus on Border Carbon adjustment (BCA) or Caborn Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) Issues, social-political issues, and Legal or environmental jurisdictional overlap issues. Although the implementation of ETS markets is on the rise, there are contemporary issues that remain to be resolved. Carbon leakage and loss of competitiveness are the major reasons advanced for proposing BCAs/CBAMs as carbon leakage and competitive loss mitigation strategies. However, the BCAs/CBAMs have been criticized on several fronts. Firstly, the BCAs are perceived and criticized as covert ‘green’ protectionist measures. Secondly, critics argue that BCAs/CBAMs implementations will violate international trade laws and international climate agreements such as the Paris Agreement. Thirdly, with regards to the environmental jurisdictional authority, the reviews found that the over-centralization of environmental regulation and the lack of streamlining the environmental jurisdictional laws are the drivers of environmental jurisdictional authority disputes in the existing ETS jurisdictions. Fourthly, in terms of socio-political issues, critics argue that the theory underpinning the implementation of the BCAs/CBAMs as a way of combatting carbon leakage and loss of competitiveness is false or dubious because empirical literature on carbon leakage strongly suggests that firms make relocation decisions based on many factors of which environmental regulation is not the major factor. The literature recommends that the ideal approach to global climate change action is a mutual agreement on best practices in implementing BCAs, including climate clubs, that are not only environmentally effective but also more equitable and less disruptive of trade.