International Building Code Research Articles

Proposal of Resilient Housing Features for the Disaster Affected Community of Bangladesh

Thinking resiliency in terms of housing features for post disaster housing reconstruction (PDHR) is a paramount initiative after a disaster. Therefore, the aim of this research is to ascertain the demands of the disaster victims and propose a wind-resistant, resilient housing prototype that would be affordable. Based on a three-month survey of the region severely damaged by Cyclone SIDR in Bangladesh, this research argues that PDHR’s planning features are significantly short of the victims’ choice, need, and demand, forcing them to quickly modify or transform the reconstructed houses. Based on the survey, a prototype covering an area of 37.21 sq. m (400 sq. ft) with a hybrid construction technique and a cost model are proposed that will be a resilient solution against cyclones and other natural hazards. Additionally, the proposed house was modeled using finite elements, and its findings are within the International Building Code’s allowable limits. In conclusion, this paper proposes some guidelines to strengthen Bangladesh National Building Code (BNBC) that would enable to build a resilient housing society in the disaster-prone areas.

Assessment of a Fast Proxy of Vs30 (Vs30m)

The most frequent parameter used to quantify seismic site response in ground motion models is time-averaged shear wave velocity in the top 30 m of a site (Vs30), used by many engineering design codes and most recently by published empirical-scaling equations to estimate the amplitudes of strong ground motion. The current study explores the potential comparison of the results from the predictive equations and formula recommendations by the international building code. A total of 53 synthetic and real data models with distinct types of vs. profile were used to determine the theoretical dispersion curves and avoid forward and inverse modeling. In the prediction equation, VR36 and VR40 were employed to estimate Vs30. Furthermore, using VR40, based on the 53 different models, shows a good agreement with Vs30. The thickness of the first layer substantially affects the correlation. The findings calculated by the correlation are not in the acceptable zone for layer thicknesses of 10 < H < 20 m and thin layers at shallow depths with lower shear wave velocity.

The use and application of pressure-based acoustical metrics adopted within the International Building Code

The 2021 International Building Code (IBC) includes pressure-based metrics as the field acoustical standards for conformance. These include normalized noise isolation class (NNIC) and normalized impact sound rating (NISR) (ASTM E336-20 and ASTM E1007-21, ASTM International; 2021 International Building Code, Section 1206, International Code Council). Pressure-based metrics were intentionally used in lieu of power based metrics. The authors here address why pressure-based metrics are more appropriate than power-based metrics for field verification, following from previous work [LoVerde and Dong, “Field impact insulation testing: Inadequacy of existing normalization methods and proposal for new ratings analogous to those for airborne noise reduction,” JASA 118, 638 (2005); LoVerde, Dong, and Rawlings, “Sound pressure-based ratings for evaluation of in situ sound isolation,” Denver (2022)]. Furthermore, the authors shall present the application of these metrics as they pertain to Building Code requirements. This paper will include and present code interpretation as it relates to sample size and evaluation for compliance as it relates to Building Code and sampling of systems for acceptance.

A building information modeling‐fire dynamics simulation integrated framework for the simulation of passive fire protection in a mid‐scale cross‐laminated timber compartment: Numerical implementation and benchmarking

AbstractConstruction fires are a big threat to worker safety and property safety. Mass timber buildings under construction are largely unprotected as they are not yet equipped with active fire protection systems. With the addition of Types IVA, B, and C, the 2021 International Building Code adopted stricter requirements for mass timber buildings that are under construction. Cross‐laminated timber (CLT) is used as the primary structural element for high‐rise mass timber buildings. However, to date, limited number of research studies investigated the impact of passive fire protection for CLT buildings that are under construction. To facilitate a better understanding of construction fires and their consequences, it is necessary to develop a numerical modeling solution for the early phases of a CLT construction project, which can be achieved by using building information models together with fire dynamics simulation (FDS). However, the numerical modeling technique must be benchmarked against experimental data first to then extrapolate the modeling technique to explore other parameters and conduct FDS analysis. Therefore, this paper develops and benchmarks a numerical modeling solution against a mid‐scale CLT compartment fire test by applying the FDS tool to simulate the fire behavior within the CLT compartment. The FDS analysis results are expected to validate the practicality of simulating the fire behavior in CLT structures using the numerical model proposed in this study. The overarching goal of this study is therefore to develop a comprehensive numerical modeling solution to simulate and assess passive fire protection sequencing in CLT buildings that are under construction.

Regulatory information transformation ruleset expansion to support automated building code compliance checking

The traditional building code compliance checking process mainly relies on design reviewers to review design documents or models manually. The intensive manual effort needed makes this process time-consuming, costly, and error-prone. Automated compliance checking (ACC) could be a promising upgrade of the traditional manual code compliance checking. With a reduced workload on design reviewers, ACC is cheaper, faster, and immune to human errors. To support ACC, building code requirements need to be represented in a computer-processable format to enable automated reasoning, which will in turn allow an automated assessment of the building design's compliance status with building codes. A major limitation of many existing ACC systems/methods is their limited range of checkable building code requirements. To address that, the state of the art uses pattern matching-based rules to transform building code requirements into computable formats automatically, but the ruleset was developed and tested only on a few chapters of building code requirements. An efficient ruleset expansion method is needed to increase its range of checkable building code requirements at a low cost, to bring ACC systems closer to full deployment. In this paper, the authors proposed a new regulatory information transformation ruleset expansion method for expanding an existing ruleset. This method can expand the range of checkable code requirements of ACC systems without significant manual effort. The proposed ruleset expansion method takes an iterative approach to ensure the generality and validity of new pattern matching-based rules and the quality of information transformation results. The expanded ruleset was tested on generating logic clauses from Chapter 5 of the International Building Code 2015. Compared to the baseline ruleset, the expanded ruleset increased the predicate-level precision, recall, and F1-score of the logic clause generation by 10.44%, 25.72%, and 18.02%, to 95.17%, 96.60%, and 95.88%, respectively.

Application of acoustical control through building codes and regulatory requirements

The International Building Code (IBC) establishes minimum acoustical performance requirements for permanent and transient housing facilities. The lab parameters for acoustical performance within the IBC are useful during the design and permitting process but fail to provide code officials, builders, designers, and residents a method for evaluating the success of a completed building. The latest update to the IBC in 2021 establishes standards and metrics for use in evaluating post-construction code compliance to mutually protect all stakeholders (builders, code officials, occupants, municipalities, etc.) in housing facilities and reduces historic ambiguity in the code. Historically, the nature of the metrics and their ability to evaluate success has been limited (“Field impact insulation testing: Inadequacy of existing normalization methods and proposal for new ratings analogous to those for airborne noise reduction,” LoVerde/Dong, JASA, 2005). There is some historic precedent regarding the application and measurement requirement for field metrics (“Coping with uncertainties in the design and evaluation ofacoustical assemblies,” LoVerde/Dong, ASA Hong Kong, 2012). This presentation expands this conversation to examine regulatory requirements and discusses application of field verification of acoustical performance metrics.

Sound pressure-based ratings are preferred for evaluation of insitu sound isolation

The International Building Code has recently been revised to explicitly specify the ratings to use for field (in situ) measurements of airborne and impact sound isolation in residential properties. We review the differences between the various ratings, which (on the surface) are defined by their normalization procedure. Two normalization options are defined in current ASTM and ISO standards: a standard reverberation time of 0.5 s, and a standard amount of absorption of 10m2. It is not always appreciated that the choice of normalization is a choice of the type of measurement being performed. Normalization to a standard reverberation time is based on sound pressure and hence is a measurement of the acoustic isolation between spaces, while normalization to a standard amount of absorption is based on apparent sound power and hence is a measurement of the performance of the separating assembly. It is sometimes assumed the sound power-based ratings are representative of the sound isolation experienced by occupants, but they often provide an inaccurate assessment of the resultant isolation. Analysis and examples are presented, and it is demonstrated that the sound pressure-based ratings are preferred.

COMPARISON OF OMAN SEISMIC CODE WITH INTERNATIONAL COUNTERPARTS BASED ON REGIONAL SEISMIC HAZARD

Oman Seismic Code (OSC) was developed in 2013 to provide guidelines for seismic analysis and design of buildings in the Sultanate of Oman. Prior to its development, specifications of Uniform Building Code 1997 (UBC) and International Building Code 2006 (IBC) were used. This study compares base shear, lateral force distribution, and effective storey drift obtained from the three seismic codes using equivalent static load and response spectrum analysis methods. Reinforced concrete buildings with 25m x 40m plan having columns at 5m spacing are used; 3-, 6-, 13- and 19- storeys are considered having height of 10m, 19m, 40m and 58m, respectively. The buildings were considered as having normal occupancy condition, resting on very dense soil (type-C). The study considered low and normal ductility classes defined by the OSC and compared Zone-1 of OSC with Zone-1 of UBC and IBC. OSC provided slightly higher values (20% - 35% higher) of base shear than IBC and UBC for the low ductility class. For the normal ductility class, it provided marginally lower (9% - 12% lower) values for 6-, 13- and 19-storey buildings while a higher value for the 3-storey building. The storey shear force and storey drift from the OSC also compared well with the international counterparts. Muscat that is Zone-1 of OSC is equivalent to Zone-1 of UBC and IBC.

An Overview of the Seismic Elastic Response Spectra and Their Application According to Mexican, U.S., and International Building Codes

The design of earthquake-resistant structures by applying traditional or performance-based seismic analysis methods involves two large variables: the seismic risk of the area and the physical characteristics of the structure. Before analyzing any building, it is required to determine the seismicity in the location to evaluate the accelerations that the structure must withstand by deterministic or probabilistic methods. The typical results of a seismic study are the uniform hazard spectra in the rock layer related to a specific return period and structural damping. The building codes use different methods to obtain the elastic response spectra, seeking to offer simple procedures by using parametric factors to consider the soil type; however, the procedure tends to return conservative estimates. On the other hand, site-specific spectra offer accurate and less conservative acceleration values, with the disadvantage of an extensive and costly mathematical process, justifying their application mostly to important structures. This review article gives the state of the art of seismic elastic response spectra using probabilistic seismic hazard maps as inputs, taking into account the importance of the structure and the soil type, according to Mexican, U.S., and international building codes.

Is Your Residence Electrically Safe? [Electrical Safety

Over the past year and a half, we’ve been putting an addition on our home. The contractor did the foundation, framing, and exterior; we did the interior. It was a lot of work, but I was surprised by the amount of research and study needed, especially around the local building codes and required inspections. The municipality uses the 2015 International Building Code and National Fire Protection Association 70 (the National Electrical Code) from 2014, with some special amendments. Those codes are a few cycles removed from the latest versions and may miss some of the recent developments in technology that can provide safer and more secure dwellings.

Research and Testing Lead to Historic Code Change

Abstract Simply substituting wood for conventional building materials could provide almost a tenth of the global carbon emission reductions needed to meet 2030 goals. However, while structural light-frame wood products are the go-to building material in the United States for low-rise residential construction, capturing over 90 percent of the market, any kind of wood-frame construction at the time under examination was limited to 5 stories and 85 feet in height. These story and height limitations dated back decades and prevented the design and construction of larger and taller buildings. In 2014, the American Wood Council (AWC) began developing a plan to expand these limits, but recognized it would require the International Building Code, the predominant model code adopted in most local and state jurisdictions in the United States, to embrace a new type of construction: fire-resistance-rated tall mass timber.

Improving fire resistance and energy performance of fast buildings made of hollow polypropylene blocks

Polypropylene (PP) lightweight blocks have been recently developed for fast, easy and affordable way of residential and administrative building constructions. Although; PP blocks are characterized by many competitive advantages over traditional brick masonry, they lack of fire resistance owing to their low melting temperature. Therefore this study presents a technical cost-effective solution for improving the fire resistance rating (FRR) of the exposed PP walls to meet the requirements of the international building and international fire codes for providing optimal fire protection for occupants. A fire protective cladding system consists mainly of cold-formed steel framing lined with gypsum plasterboards with cavity insulation has been proposed to attain adequate FRR of exposed PP walls. Fire resistance standard test has been conducted on a representative test assembly to evaluate the FRR of the new composite wall. The contribution of the newly developed cladding to the energy consumption performance of a PP building model as compared to the traditional bricks/blocks has been assessed by using DesignBuilder energy simulation software. FRR of an hour (1-h) has been attained based on verifying structural integrity and thermal insulation of the protected PP wall. Up to an hour of fire exposure, the maximum temperature recorded for the unexposed PP wall surface was 69 °C this confirm the enhanced thermal insulation of the composite wall. The utilization of PP blocks in buildings has reduced the annual energy consumption by about 13 and 33.6% as compared to conventional clay and cement bricks respectively. The cladding system has provided additional considerable reduction in the energy consumption rate of PP blocks.

Cyclic behavior of high strength lightweight concrete slab-edge column connections with and without openings

In this study, the seismic behavior of nine full-scale slab-edge column connections with and without openings constructed from Normal-Strength Concrete (NSC with fc` = 28 MPa) and High-Strength Lightweight Concrete (HSLWC with fc` = 49 MPa) is investigated experimentally and analytically. The nine specimens included five specimens from NSC and four specimens from HSLWC. The punching strength provisions used by international codes, such as the International Building Code (International Code Council 2021), the American Concrete Institute (ACI Committee 318 2019), the New Zealand Code (New Zealand Standard NZS 3101: Part 1 2006), the Japan Society of Civil Engineering (JSCE 2007), and the Eurocode 2 (Eurocode 2 2008), are investigated when applied to HSLWC slab-edge column connections with openings. The most significant factors to consider are the effect of using HSLWC, the location and size of the openings. The investigation was widened by performing a nonlinear finite element analysis with the computer application ABAQUS. According to the test results, the punching shear strength estimated using the equations of the (International Code Council 2021), (ACI Committee 318 2019), (New Zealand Standard NZS 3101: Part 1 2006), and (Eurocode 2 2008) is safe for HSLWC. For both NSC and HSLWC, the punching shear strength estimated using the JSCE-2007 is either on the borderline or unsafe. The ultimate punching load of HSLWC with fc` = 49 MPa is increased by about 72% than that of NSC with fc` = 28 MPa for slab-edge column connections without openings and by approximately 81% for connections with opening size equals to one-eighth of the column strip width and positioned next to the face of the column. The finite element program ABAQUS can be used successfully to forecast the behavior of normal strength concrete and high strength lightweight concrete slab-edge column connections under seismic loadings, both with and without opening.

Assessment of seismic hazards in Yemen

The seismic hazard analyses for Yemen have attracted the attention of researchers during the last two decades. However, the studies are limited and mainly use deterministic or approximate conventional probabilistic approaches. The conclusions drawn from these studies do not fit with current seismic design codes (International Building Code). This article presented the method and findings of a probabilistic seismic hazard assessment for Yemen in accordance with current seismic design building regulations. All the data sources, available nationally and internationally, were utilized in compiling earthquake database by covering the recent records and the seismic activity maps of the study region. The study area was regionalized to 11 seismotectonic area sources on the basis of the seismicity maps and available tectonic maps. On the analytical side, the earthquake recurrence analysis was evaluated for each source, and logic tree concept was used to model the seismic sources that may have significant effect on seismic hazard evaluation of Yemen as a combination of area and line sources. A probabilistic forecasting model was formulated, appropriate ground motion attenuation relationships were used, and seismic hazard contour maps were developed for the entire Yemen area. The maps present dense contours of peak ground accelerations and short and long period spectral accelerations for different return periods. The highest predicted seismic hazard is found in Dhamar City. This study provides basic and essential requirements that will be valuable in developing advanced seismic design criteria for Yemen.

Carbon Impact and Cost of Mass Timber Beam–Column Gravity Systems

The need to lower the embodied carbon impact of the built environment and sequester carbon over the life of buildings has spurred the growth of mass timber building construction, leading to the introduction of new building types (Types IV-A, B, and C) in the 2021 International Building Code (IBC). The achievement of sustainability goals has been hindered by the perceived first cost assessment of mass timber systems. Optimizing cost is an urgent prerequisite to embodied carbon reduction. Due to a high level of prefabrication and reduction in field labor, the mass timber material volume constitutes a larger portion of total project cost when compared to buildings with traditional materials. In this study, the dollar cost, carbon emitted, and carbon sequestered of mass timber beam–column gravity system solutions with different design configurations was studied. Design parameters studied in this sensitivity analysis included viable building types, column grid dimension, and building height. A scenario study was conducted to estimate the economic viability of tall wood buildings with respect to land costs. It is concluded that, while Type III building designations are the most economical for lower building heights, the newly introduced Type IV subcategories remain competitive for taller structures while providing a potentially significant embodied carbon benefit.

Torsional design method used in Eurasia region: A comparative study

AbstractThis study conducted an extensive review and evaluation of torsional design methods specified in SNiP and other international building codes. Unlike thin‐walled tube approach utilized as a key basis of design expressions in ACI 318, CSA, and Eurocode 2, skew‐bending theory is still adopted as torsional design methods specified in SNiP code used through Eurasia region. This comparative study is timely required since there are radical code changes in leading Eurasia countries, such as Russia, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan, toward Eurocode from SNiP code. To this end, a total of 253 reinforced concrete (RC) specimens that failed in pure torsion were collected from the literature to compare the analytical accuracy of the torsional design methods specified in various design codes. It was found that the torsional design methods specified in SNiP and CSA codes can estimate the torsional strengths of RC members with good level of accuracy, while Eurocode 2 provided quite conservative results. In addition, the maximum limitations stipulated in each design code on the compressive strength of concrete and yield strength of reinforcements are of importance for the safe and efficient torsional design due to interrelation between reinforcement ratios considering materials strengths and inclination angle of compressive concrete strut.

Influence of a tunnel on the seismic response of an adjacent tall building considering dynamic interaction of Building-Soil-Tunnel system

Excavating tunnels in urban areas could have a profound effect on the site characteristics and could change the free-field motion due to many different reasons. Although the previous earthquake events have ascertained that the response of the above-ground buildings close to the tunnel will also change, this effect is not well-addressed in the national and international design building codes. In this paper, considering a fully coupled system of tunnel-soil building interaction, the presence of a tunnel on the seismic response of a two dimensional 15-story scaled benchmark building under two far- and two near-field benchmark earthquake records has been investigated. Additionally, non-linear dynamic analyses considering the material and geometric nonlinearity have been applied, and to obtain nonlinear behavior of the soil, Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion and the equivalent linear method are implemented. The interface between structural foundation and soil is simulated by normal and shear springs and, the interaction between tunnel and soil is modeled using Coulomb Friction. As a parametric study, the effect of tunnel shape, cross-sectional area, the burial depth of the tunnel, and the effect of site soil material on the seismic response of the building is evaluated by evaluating the ratio of the structural responses with the presence of the tunnel to the structural responses without the presence of the tunnel. The results showed that the maximum relative displacements of the building for soils with 320 and 150 m/s in the presence of the tunnel decrease at most 10 percent under both far- and near-field earthquake records.

Dynamic Response Spectrum of Multi-Story Shear Frame Subjected to Moderate Ground Motion

Design structures to resist natural hazards is a vital issue to mitigate the impact of such threats. Earthquakes could lead to numerous injuries and infrastructure destruction. Specifically, when structures are not designed to resist seismic load. This article presents dynamic analysis of four-story shear frame under moderate ground motion to determine the dynamic response. The proposed location of the considered frame is near Iraq-Iran border due to increase of seismic activities in last years. Structures in the considered seismic zone are essentially either residential or commercial buildings and not designed to resist seismic load, therefore structural system failure is probable. Simplified model is considered to determine response spectrum according to the International Building Code requirements. The algorithm of the analysis is developed using MATLAB® code to get mode shapes, response spectrum acceleration, maximum displacement, maximum shear forces, and modal participation mass at each story. The article develops design response spectra curve of Erbil city. Furthermore, the analysis results showed that first mode shape has more contribution than the other modes because higher percentage of the mass of the shear frame responds to the ground motion, and 88.53% of shear-frame mass is participating responds to the ground motion in the same mode

Feasibility of using clay-free bricks manufactured from water treatment sludge, glass, and marble wastes: An exploratory study

The global generation of millions of tonnes of water treatment sludge (WTS) per day is triggering waste management problems and the up-cycling of WTS in masonry bricks is an eco-friendly solution. Effect of different dosages of WTS on the performance of clay bricks has been studied by researchers. Scant work is available regarding the performance of no-clay bricks i.e. bricks made exclusively with the WTS. This study aims to investigate the engineering performance of no-clay bricks having WTS, glass, and marble wastes. For this reason, WTS bricks are manufactured with different dosages of glass and marble wastes (i.e. 0–15%). Mechanical, durability, thermal, and microstructural performance of all the brick specimens is explored. X-ray fluorescence results show that the collective amount of fluxing agents in WTS exceeds 9% (similar to low refractive clay). All the bricks manufactured in this study exhibited water absorption between 5.3 and 12.6% and can be classified as first-class and severe weather resistant bricks as per ASTM C373-18 and ASTM C62-17, respectively. The thermal conductivity and porosity of no-clay WTS bricks were observed 1.014 W/mK and 11%, respectively. Moreover, the higher compressive strength and bulk density of all the brick specimens fulfill the international building code obligations. Furthermore, no-clay WTS bricks meet the ASTM C902 and ASTM C62-17 requirements for light vehicular traffic and severe weather-resistant bricks, respectively. Empirical relationships between the compressive strength, thermal conductivity, porosity, and density of brick specimens developed in this study can be used to predict the performance of WTS bricks. Therefore, no-clay WTS bricks having glass and marble wastes can be used to produce strong, durable, and sustainable buildings leading towards a cleaner environment and natural clay conservation.

3D printing in construction: state of the art and applications

3D printing is an emerging technology that revolutionizes the traditional construction industry. Although it has gained wide attention, implementing the state of the art of 3D printing in construction has remained limited. Since the technology has been developing very fast and many innovations have been made public by nonacademic sources, excluding them would inevitably result in an incomplete picture. Therefore, in this review, we aimed to fill this gap by including all the construction 3D printing projects and studies performed from nonacademic sources as well as academic articles. Apart from evaluating the current progress, we also examined the readiness of 3D printing applications in construction, both from technical and nontechnical aspects. As reflected by various printing products and applications, this technology can offer much for the construction industry. However, the current printing technology cannot yet produce products for the construction sector due to limited printing materials, methods, and systems. Many projects have been performed by self-developed printing setups, which are technically similar. In addition, the impacts of the technology have never been quantified. Researchers and practitioners dive into technological developments without knowing whether they would bring benefits to the construction industry. Whether following this new trend and reinventing 3D printing setups a waste of resources remains a question. For its applications in construction, more government support and official national and international building codes can be expected.