Internal Schemata Research Articles

Followership: A Classroom Exercise to Introduce the Concept

Followership is valuable for personal and organizational success, whether success is measured by satisfaction with work, improved team relationships, obtaining promotions, or quality and quantity of work output. Furthermore, senior executives and coaches recognize it as a critical skill. Despite this, creating effective followership training in the classroom is challenging because of media messages that preference leadership, internal schemas held by students that ignore followership, and cultural biases against it. This article presents a memorable kinaesthetic, visual classroom activity that introduces followership in a theory-agnostic way. The exercise begins with students introducing each other as leaders or followers, and then debriefing that activity using the Describe, Analyze, and Evaluate methodology from multicultural training. Over a 10-year period, the exercise has successfully engaged undergraduate and graduate students, MBA candidates, and working professionals from frontline to senior management.

Integration of negative experiences: A neuropsychological framework for human resilience.

We propose that the fundamental mechanism underlying resilience is the integration of novel or negative experiences into internal schemata. This process requires a switch from reactive to predictive control modes, from the brain's salience network to the default mode network. Reappraisal, among other mechanisms, is suggested to facilitate this process.

Building a Spatial Database for Romanian Archaeological Sites

Spatial databases are a new technology in the database systems which allow storing, retrieving and maintaining geospatial data. This paper describes the steps which we have followed to model, design and develop a spatial database for Romanian archaeological sites and their assemblies. The system analysis was made using the well known Entity-Relationship model; the system design included the conceptual, the external and the internal schemas design, and the system development meant developing the needed database objects and programs. The designed database allows users to load vector geospatial data about the archaeological sites in two distinct spatial reference systems WGS84 and STEREO70, temporal data about the historical periods and cultures, other descriptive data and documents as references to the archaeological objects.

Warning: This keyboard will deconstruct— The role of the keyboard in skilled typewriting

Skilled actions are commonly assumed to be controlled by precise internal schemas or cognitive maps. We challenge these ideas in the context of skilled typing, where prominent theories assume that typing is controlled by a well-learned cognitive map that plans finger movements without feedback. In two experiments, we demonstrate that online physical interaction with the keyboard critically mediates typing skill. Typists performed single-word and paragraph typing tasks on a regular keyboard, a laser-projection keyboard, and two deconstructed keyboards, made by removing successive layers of a regular keyboard. Averaged over the laser and deconstructed keyboards, response times for the first keystroke increased by 37%, the interval between keystrokes increased by 120%, and error rate increased by 177%, relative to those of the regular keyboard. A schema view predicts no influence of external motor feedback, because actions could be planned internally with high precision. We argue that the expert knowledge mediating action control emerges during online interaction with the physical environment.

Arguments against the cognitive dysmetria hypothesis of schizophrenia.

Recently, the 'cognitive dysmetria' theory for schizophrenia has been formulated. According to this theory, a primary neurocognitive dysfunction is the core of schizophrenia and underlies symptom formation. The suggested perceptual fragmentation of external stimuli and inability to connect such perceptions with internal schemata is suggested to lead to positive symptoms, while defensive self-restriction and the exhaustion of the mental apparatus lead to negative symptomatology. Objections to this theory include observations (i) that patients with dominant positive symptoms, e.g., delusions, hallucinations, manifest better neurocognitive function and (ii) that typically antipsychotics significantly reduce positive symptoms and thus improve both the clinical picture and the functioning (to the extent it is reduced with positive symptoms) of the patients, yet have little or no effect on negative, e.g., loss of volition, emotional blunting, and neurocognitive symptomatology, e.g., attentional and memory deficit. The literature suggests that neurocognitive symptoms group independently of other symptomatology. It is suggested that there is currently more evidence against than in favor of the 'cognitive dysmetria' theory.

Differences in Imagined Interactions as a Consequence of Marital Ideology and Attachment

This study examined the relationship between attachment theory and Fitzpatrick's [1] marital typology based on traditional, independent, and separate ideologies in terms of imagined interactions or covert dialogues that individuals have with relational partners. According to attachment theory, individuals have internal schemata of themselves and their relationships which provide expectancies for adult relationships. These expectancies are reflected in secure, anxious/ambivalent, and avoidant attachment based on the typology derived by Hazan and Shaver [2]. A series of five hypotheses were tested exploring the relationship between attachment styles, marital types, and the prediction of attachment as a function of having imagined interactions with a relational partner in which individuals imagine talking with significant others about important relationship issues. The data revealed that sharing as a marital ideology was associated with a secure attachment and negatively associated with an anxious/ambivalent attachment. In addition, the data revealed that an anxious/ambivalent attachment was associated with having discrepant imagined interactions and that a secure attachment was associated with rehearsing messages that were vivid and nondiscrepant from real encounters. Results are discussed in terms of attachment theory, imagined interaction functions, and marital ideologies.

The systems integration problem

Abstract The systems integration problem, defined as coupling GIS and other systems, is analysed by the use of two models based on database and federated database reference models. A three-schema model of a system enables the classification of incompatibilities between systems in terms of differences in external, conceptual and internal schemas. A systems reference model identifies transformation, constructor and accessor operations as the basic mechanisms to overcome these differences. The possible architectures of integrated systems are defined in terms of the presence of these operations and their general strengths and weaknesses are assessed.

Losslessness and semantic correctness of database schema transformation: Another look of schema equivalence

Transformations between two groups of relation schemata play important roles in a database environment. These transformations are used for obtaining normal form relation schemata, generating certain view schemata and deciding appropriate internal schemata. They are also related to the data translation between distinct data models and hence between distinct database management systems. Relations belonging to one group of schemata are usually maintained in computer storage, while those belonging to another group of schemata can be virtual. It is always possible to retrieve data from virtual relations as if they are existing relations. However, if one would like to update virtual relations, the transformation between two groups of schemata must be a bijection. This paper presents four basic schema transformations and rules (constraints) which the two groups of relation schemata should obey for each transformation to be a bijection. Two of them are algebraic transformations and two others are functional transformations. On one group of schemata, some additional rules (constraints) may be imposed, against which database updates must be validated. Only the updates which transform one group of relations consistent with respect to the given rules into another group of relations also consistent with respect to them, are allowed. When the subject group of relation schemata is transformed into another group of relation schemata, these rules should also be transformed into those imposed on the latter group of relation schemata. Rule-transforming procedures associated with the four transformations are also discussed in this paper. The subject issue may provide foundations of normal form theory, view support problems, and physical representation of database relations. Also the rule transformation procedures can be applied to query transformation problems. Several extensions of the issue are also presented.

Good and Poor Readers' Comprehension of Story Structure across Different Input and Output Modalities

STORY COMPREHENSION patterns of good and poor sixth-grade readers were examined across four modality combinations for input and output: listening-oral recall, reading-oral recall, listening-written recall, reading-written recall. Twenty-one good readers and 21 poor readers were asked to summarize important information in a different short story presented for each condition. The subjects were tested individually in one 45-minute session. The results showed that good readers recalled more story propositions, but that the organization of the story schemata represented in the summaries was similar for the two groups. This included the pattern of story grammar categories for explicit propositions recalled, the number and types of additions, and the levels of importance of summary propositions in the hierarchical structures of the stories. Differences in the types of information emphasized as important were found for explicit information as compared to implicit information, suggesting variations in schema organization related to the nature of the text. There were no significant differences between the groups related to input or output modalities, though oral recall conditions produced longer summaries overall. Results and implications are discussed in terms of different types of internal cognitive schemata for stories and the effects of variations in the complexity of story texts.

Logical, internal, and physical reference behavior in CODASYL database systems

This work investigates one aspect of the performance of CODASYL database systems: the data reference behavior. We introduce a model of database traversals at three levels: the logical, internal, and physical levels. The mapping between the logical and internal levels is defined by the internal schema, whereas the mapping between the internal and the physical levels depends on cluster properties of the database. Our model explains the physical reference behavior for a given sequence of DML statements at the logical level. Software has been implemented to monitor references in two selected CODASYL DBMS applications. In a series of experiments the physical reference behavior was observed for varying internal schemas and cluster properties of the database. The measurements were limited to retrieval transactions, so that a variety of queries could be analyzed for the same well-known state of the database. Also, all databases were relatively small in order to allow fast reloading with varying internal schema parameters. In all cases, the database transactions showed less locality of reference than do programs under virtual memory operating systems; some databases showed no locality at all. No evidence of physical sequentiality was found. This suggests that standard page replacement strategies are not optimal for CODASYL database buffer management; instead, replacement decisions in a database buffer should be based on specific knowledge available from higher system layers.

Solipsism: A Perceptual Study

Few issues have been as persistent and recurring a theme as solipsism. Modern philosophy traditionally has managed the starting point of solipsism by translating it into a transcendental and apodictic condition for knowledge. Solus ipse, the contention that I alone am, is reworked to exploit its most valued feature, the analytic clarity which the thought process achieves when restricted to its own operations. In this manner philosophy has endeavored to gain certain knowledge of how the mind embraces the domain of knowledge, the sensory world. As effective as transcendental thought has been in managing solipsism, it does not resolve problems inherent in the position. In emphasizing the theme of self-knowledge or introspection, philosophy erects a barrier between the mind's capacity to know, an internal process, and the world known, an external domain. The external world is known by means of consciousness* internal schemata or patterns of thought. Philosophical relations which describe this process— inference, association, analogical apperception—all bear witness to the inability of consciousness to escape its own sphere of operations. Far from overcoming the pitfalls inherent in solipsism, modern philosophy shows itself to be solipsism's most ardent defender; the repression of the external world in favor of a constituting consciousness amounts to a mere restatement of the solipsistic thesis. The motivation behind the treatment of solipsism discussed above is a classic one. Philosophy has traditionally distrusted the sensory world and the perceptual process through which the world is presented to consciousness. In view of the limited success enjoyed by this approach to solipsism, it is legitimate to inguire whether perception merits such distrust. If not, is it instead the treatment which perception receives at the hand of transcendental exposition which prevents a resolution of the problem? The objective of this es-

INTERNAL SCHEMATA FOR LETTERS IN GOOD AND BAD READERS

Children of various ages and levels of reading ability and adults copied and reversed graphic symbols which were either normal letters, mirror‐reversed letters or letter‐like shapes. Looking at reversed letters hardly affected performance, but producing reversed letters decreased speed and increased errors considerably. Since this was found also when writing with the non‐preferred hand a mechanism more abstract than muscle movements must be implicated.It is hypothesized that internal schemata for letters are acquired when learning to read. Schemata are necessary in order to recognize letters despite distortions such as occur in handwriting. An effect of schemata for letter orientation was shown by 7‐year‐old good readers, but to a much lesser extent by bad readers. On the other hand, 12‐year‐old bad readers showed an effect of schemata to a greater extent than good readers. It is suggested that one type of reading difficulty may be characterized by weakness of schemata, while another type may be characterized by dominance of schemata. Optimal reading performance would depend on the balanced integration of two processes: paying attention to external stimulus characteristics (‘looking’) as well as using internal schemata (‘knowing’).

Capacity to handle unassimilable material: coping strategies of schizophrenics and normals.

Summary With anxiety conceptualized as resulting from a backlog of unassimilable or incongruent material, two processes were postulated to reflect coping strategies, assimilation and accommodation. These were assessed by means of a “picture interpretation task.” The hypothesis that schizophrenics fail to cope with unassimilable material because they are unable to accommodate (the process of changing internal schemata) was supported. The second prediction that paranoids would increase assimilation while nonparanoids would suppress assimilation was not supported.