Internal Reasoning Research Articles

Testing the limits of structural thinking about gender.

When seeking to explain social regularities (such as gender differences in the labor market) people often rely on internal features of the targets, frequently neglecting structural and systemic factors external to the targets. For example, people might think women leave the job market after childbirth because they are less competent or are better suited for child-rearing than men, thereby eliding socio-cultural and economic factors that disadvantage women. Across two studies (total N=192) we probe 4- and 5-year-olds and 7- and 8-year-olds' internal versus structural reasoning about gender. We explore the evaluative and behavioral implications of this reasoning process with both novel gendered behaviors that were experimentally created and familiar gendered behaviors that exist outside of a lab context. We show that children generate more structural explanations, evaluate the structural explanation more positively, expect behaviors to be more mutable, and evaluate gender non-conforming behaviors more positively when structural cues are provided. However, we also show that such information may be of limited effectiveness at reducing pre-existing group-based discriminatory behaviors: children continue to report less willingness to affiliate with peers who display non-conforming behaviors even in the presence of structural cues. Taken together, these results provide evidence concerning children's structural reasoning about gender categories and shed new light on how such reasoning might affect social evaluations and behavioral intentions.

The forms of sympathy and its role in understanding other's experiences in Scheler

The objective is to describe the main features of the sympathy phenomenon from Max Scheler's phenomenology. The central problem is to show how sympathy shows itself as a privileged "place" for understanding the experiences of others, because it implies a psychic-affective unification with whom one sympathizes or welcomes. However, compassion and co-rejoicing cannot be understood as the apprehension of psychic contents unrelated to the reproduction of the feelings of the other, mistakenly equating sympathizing with affective contagion. Thus, first, some reasons and ways of transformations of anthropologies and historical consolidation of the modern ratio that led to such mistake are outlined. Then, after distinguishing the plural forms of sympathy, showing its law of internal reasoning, it is discussed in what sense sympathy is to suffer and to rejoice by spelling out its intentional structure. To know the other, however, is not only to unite affectionately with others, but the free decision, proper of a spiritual being, to take part in the opening of the personal being of others, to participate in their intentional acts. It follows, then, that sympathizing presupposes the supreme form of love. Palavras-chave : Feelings; sympathy; love; knowledge of each other.

Explaining Arguments with Background Knowledge

Most information we consume as a society is obtained over the Web. News – often from questionable sources – are spread online, as are election campaigns; calls for (collective) action spread with unforeseen speed and intensity. All such actions have argumentation at their core, and the conveyed content is often strategically selected or rhetorically framed. The responsibility of critical analysis of arguments is thus tacitly transferred to the content consumer who is often not prepared for the task, nor aware of the responsibility.The ExpLAIN project aims at making the structure and reasoning of arguments explicit – not only for humans, but for Robust Argumentation Machines that are endowed with language understanding capacity. Our vision is a system that is able to deeply analyze argumentative text: that identifies arguments and counter-arguments, and reveals their internal structure, conveyed content and reasoning. A particular challenge for such a system is to uncover implicit knowledge which many arguments rely on. This requires human background knowledge and reasoning capacity, in order to explicate the complete reasoning of an argument.This article presents ongoing research of the ExpLAIN project that aims to make the vision of such a system a tangible aim. We introduce the problems and challenges we need to address, and present the progress we achieved until now by applying advanced natural language and knowledge processing methods. Our approach puts particular focus on leveraging available sources of structured and unstructured background knowledge, the automatic extension of such knowledge, the uncovering of implicit content, and reasoning techniques suitable for informal, everyday argumentation.

ANALISIS FAKTOR DETERMINAN TERJADINYA KECENDERUNGAN KECURANGAN (STUDI PADA PEMERINTAH PROVINSI PAPUA)

The study conducted to examine the effects of compensation suitability, leadership authority, internal control system, information asymmetric, regulatory enforcement and moral reasoning to the fraud tendency—unethical behaviour used as mediating variable. I raised the data using a survey. The data is analyzed using WrapPLS 6.0 application. The result shows that the leading authority and moral reasoning have an effect on the tendency of fraud, while compensation suitability, internal control system, information asymmetry, regulatory enforcement, and unethical behaviour has no effect. Furthermore, unethical behaviour does not mediate the compensation suitability, leadership authority, internal control system, information asymmetry, regulatory enforcement, and moral reasoning.

Demand-Driven Transparency for Monitoring Intelligent Agents

In autonomous multiagent or multirobotic systems, the ability to quickly and accurately respond to threats and uncertainties is important for both mission outcomes and survivability. Such systems are never truly autonomous, often operating as part of a human-agent team. Artificial intelligent agents (IAs) have been proposed as tools to help manage such teams; e.g., proposing potential courses of action to human operators. However, they are often underutilized due to a lack of trust . Designing transparent agents, who can convey at least some information regarding their internal reasoning processes, is considered an effective method of increasing trust. How people interact with such transparency information to gain situation awareness while avoiding information overload is currently an unexplored topic. In this article, we go part way to answering this question, by investigating two forms of transparency: sequential transparency , which requires people to step through the IA's explanation in a fixed order; and demand-driven transparency , which allows people to request information as needed. In an experiment using a multivehicle simulation, our results show that demand-driven interaction improves the operators’ trust in the system while maintaining, and at times improving, performance http://www.ieee.org/documents/taxonomy_v101.pdf .?> and usability.

Divide Large Scale Fuzzy Petri Net into Equivalent Sub-FPNs using Reachability Tree

As real systems become larger and complicated, the number of nodes of fuzzy Petri net (FPN) also increases rapidly, it further indicated that the algorithm complexity of related application using FPN grows up sharply. To solve this state-explosion issue, a decomposition algorithm using reachability tree is proposed to divide a large-scale FPN model into a series of sub-FPNs in this paper. Comparison experiments show that all obtained sub-FPNs do not destroy internal reasoning paths of the original large-scale FPN and represent a complete reasoning path from input place(s) to the output place.

Шахрайство та неетична поведінка як фактор, що впливає на ефективність місцевого самоврядування в Індонезії

Among all sectors, the government sector is in second place by the number of frauds. According to the Global Corruption Barometer (2020), Indonesia ranks third in terms of corruption among Asian countries. The purpose of this study is to determine the factors influencing fraud with unethical behavior as intervening variable on local government in Indonesia. Palembang City was included in 14 cities that contributed State Civil Apparatus involved fraud case in Indonesia. Therefore the sample in this study was 165 State Civil Apparatus with a minimum position as financial management staff from 33 Palembang City Government Offices. Data for the study were collected by online questionnaire. For data processing and analysis the author used Smart PLS – software with graphical user interface for variance-based structural equation modeling using the partial least squares path modeling method. The study results show that internal control, compensation suitability, moral reasoning and religiosity had an effect on fraud with unethical behavior as an intervening variable. Internal control is very important to provide protection for agencies against human weakness and to minimize the possibility of errors and actions that are not in accordance with the rules. Proportional compensation can lead to satisfaction with the commission received. Thus, it reduces unethical behavior. An individual's moral reasoning is one of the factors leading to ethical and unethical behavior. Individuals who have a better moral understanding will obey all applicable rules and policies so as to avoid unethical behavior. The level of a person's religiosity can determine a person's behavior because individuals who have a high level of religiosity will obey the values or rules that have been established by their religion. Individuals who have better religious values will find it easier to avoid and overcome fraud.

Students’ Interpretation of Formative Assessment Feedback: Three Claims for Why We Know So Little About Something So Important

AbstractIf K‐12 students are to be fully integrated as active participants in their own learning, understanding how they interpret formative assessment feedback is needed. The objective of this article is to advance three claims about why teachers and assessment scholars/specialists may have little understanding of students’ interpretation of formative assessment feedback. The three claims are as follows. First, there is little systematic research of K‐12 students’ interpretations of feedback. Systematic research requires gathering substantive evidence of students’ cognitive and emotional processes using psychological methods and tools. Second, there is an overemphasis on the external assessment process at the expense of uncovering learners’ internal reasoning and emotional processes. This overemphasis may be due to vestiges of behavioral approaches and lack of training in social cognitive methods. Third, there are psychological tools such as the clinical interview, pioneered by Piaget and used by psychologists to “enter the child's mind,” which may be helpful in uncovering students’ interpretation of feedback and associated behavioral responses. If the purpose of formative assessment is to change student learning, and feedback is delivered as a conduit to help with this long‐term change, understanding students’ interpretation of feedback plays a central role in the validity of the process.

Bosman’s Second Life? The Eurasian Economic Union Court and the Free Movement of Professional Athletes

The present article examines a recent advisory opinion handed down by the Eurasian Economic Union Court. In the remarkably bold decision, the Court continued to push for the construction of a veritable EAEU internal market. It managed, within one advisory opinion, to further the coherence of its internal market law reasoning, expand on the principles of direct effect and primacy as well as the horizontal effect of fundamental freedoms in EAEU law, provide important definitions in EAEU law, strengthen the authority of the Commission and its decisions and emphasize the duty of loyal cooperation of Member States for the full effectiveness and successful implementation of EAEU law. As only criticism, one may deplore the EAEU Court’s lack of effort to start building a coherent jurisprudence by means of referring to its own case law.

An integrated trust establishment model for the internet of agents

The Internet of Agents (IoA) is an emerging field of research that extends the concept of Internet of Things (IoT) by augmenting internal reasoning and intelligence capability to, traditionally, naive things used in IoT. In a fully automated IoA environment, agents tend to choose trustworthy partners to rely on for fulfilling their objectives, particularly when the agents cannot guarantee that potential interacting partners share the same core beliefs or make accurate statements regarding their competence and abilities. Trust establishment mechanisms can be used to direct trustees, rather than trustors, to build a higher level of trust and have greater impact on the results of their interactions when such interactions are based on trust. This paper presents ITE, a trust establishment model that integrates the two major sources of information to produce a comprehensive assessment of a trustor’s needs in IoA. Specifically, ITE attempts to incorporate explicit and implicit feedbacks to provide trust establishment under a wider range of circumstances.

Bosman’s Second Life? The Eurasian Economic Union Court and the Free Movement of Professional Athletes

The present article examines a recent advisory opinion handed down by the Eurasian Economic Union Court. In the remarkably bold decision, the Court continued to push for the construction of a veritable EAEU internal market. It managed, within one advisory opinion, to further the coherence of its internal market law reasoning, expand on the principles of direct effect and primacy as well as the horizontal effect of fundamental freedoms in EAEU law, provide important definitions in EAEU law, strengthen the authority of the Commission and its decisions and emphasize the duty of loyal cooperation of Member States for the full effectiveness and successful implementation of EAEU law. As only criticism, one may deplore the EAEU Court’s lack of efforts to start building a coherent jurisprudence by means of quoting its own case law.

Outer P-information law reasoning and its application in intelligent fusion and separating of information law

Function packet set is a dynamic model of information law, which introduces function concept into packet set and improves it; function packet set is a function set pair composed of function internal packet set $$ S^{{\bar{F}}} $$ and function outer packet set $$ S^{F} $$ ; or, $$ (S^{{\bar{F}}} ,S^{F} ) $$ is a function packet set. Packet reasoning is a dynamic reasoning generated from packet set, and it’s composed of internal packet reasoning and outer packet reasoning. This paper introduces function into packet reasoning, improves packet reasoning and gives packet information law reasoning; by cross-penetration of function outer packet set with outer packet information law reasoning, the studies on intelligent fusion of outer packet information law and its outer separating are given. The generating of outer packet information law reasoning of intelligent fusion of outer packet information law, intelligent fusion of outer packet information law with attribute conjunctive reduction theorem, outer separating and reducing of intelligent fusion of outer packet information law and outer separating of intelligent fusion of outer packet information law with discovery-application of unknown information law are given in this paper.

The Outsourcing of Ethical Thinking

The teaching of professional rules, procedures and standards, as well as the existence of ethics committees and legal advisers to achieve desired behaviours for a given profession, produces an unforeseen by-product of altering the way individuals relate to ethics. The institutionalization of a moral voice, a kind of artificial conscience for the legally defined ‘artificial person’, tends to do the ethical thinking for the individual who thinks being moral means methodically following the professionally approved rules. Professionalism and the type of methodological reason it requires are becoming a substitute for internal moral reasoning and personal responsibility, despite the belief that we are becoming more morally responsibly through professional behaviour.

Verdad divina y lenguaje humano

In this work the author presents the positive doctrine on the four principal problems which are intimately related with the theme "divine truth and human language". He uses a method which is both positive and speculative and follows the main documents of the Magisterium, especially those of Pope Paul VI, step by step. At the same time he outlines the internal reasoning which is the basis of the teaching of the Magisterium on this matter. In the first part which is entitled "our knowledge of revealed truth", the author answers the following question: how can we have objective knowledge, although in a limited form, of revealed truth which we receive in human terms and concepts? He highlights the need to have recourse to the analogy of being and of human cognition, and subsequently points out the step from the "analogia entis" to the "analogia fidei". The author shows clearly that not all philosophical frameworks are suitable receptacles for divine Revelation and that certain claims of "theological pluralism" are in the last analysis cases of pluralism in matters of faith. Foreseeing the possibility of timeworn accusations he analyzes the attitude of the Magisterium towards aristotelian philosophy, St Thomas' philosophy and towards philosophy in general. The second part, entitled "the truth of the infallible formulae of the Magisterium", establishes the classical distinction between the terms used by the Church and meaning which she has given to same. He recalls the need for christians to speak "juxta certam regulam loquendi" (St. Augustin). The conclusion is that the formulae of faith, with the meaning given to them by the Magisterium, are true and immutable, and are suitable for expressing the truth to all men in all times. He naturally analyzes the text of Pope John's discourse on the opening of the 2nd Vatican Council, on the bases of the authentic interpretation given by Paul VI and the declaration "Mysterium Ecclesiae". In the third part, entitled "the connexion between basis and form", he strives to solve the problems caused by the proponents of the structuralist theory who strip language of all objective meaning. The author distinguishes between structuralism as a method, pointing out its limits as a method, and the way structuralism is abused by some exegetes and historians of dogma. He makes brief reference to a related topic; that of the more correct translation of the words of St Vincent of Lerins, which have been frequently used by the Magisterium (sed in suo duntaxat genere, in eodem scilicet dogmate, eodem sensu, eademque sententia). In the fourth part he analyzes the theme "as close as possible to the truth revealed". He recalls the distinction between chronological proximity and cognitive proximity, which some authors ignore. He then shows how greater authenticity is not restricted to primitive texts of greater chronological proximity, but rather, given the charisma of inspiration, the homogeneous development of Dogma and the infallible assistance which the Magisterium enjoys, he shows how in fact the opposite in the case: the later expressions are as authentic as the earlier, and as well as that the later ones are more explicit and more complete gnoseologically.

Familial risk and sibling mentalization: Links with preschoolers' internalizing problems.

The current study explored whether older sibling mentalization moderated the relationship between familial risk for internalizing symptoms and the development of future internalizing problems in the younger siblings, referred to as target children. Data were collected on 397 older siblings at Time 1 (T1) when target children were newborn and their older siblings were on average 2.61 years old (SD = .75). Target children were on average 1.60 years old at Time 2 (T2). Internalizing problems were assessed via mother and partner reports. Familial risk was operationalized as the average of all older siblings' level of internalizing problems. Older sibling mentalization, indexed by internal state talk and reasoning, was observed and coded during a sibling pretend-play interaction at T2. Results revealed a significant interaction between familial risk of internalizing problems and older siblings' mentalizing abilities, showing that familial risk was related to target children's internalizing problems in the absence of sibling mentalization. Familial risk was not associated with target children's internalizing problems when siblings demonstrated mentalizing abilities. Findings support the need to consider sibling mentalization as a protective factor for children's internalizing problems. (PsycINFO Database Record

Rationalizable Information Equilibria

Rational expectations equilibria (REE) assume that the ex post equilibrium price function is able to reveal ex ante information. This paper drops the assumption of information revealing prices and instead constructs an internal reasoning process through which highly rational price-takers can infer information from other market participants under the assumption that their utility maximization problems are common knowledge. Based on this reasoning process, we introduce the novel competitive equilibrium concept of rationalizable information equilibria (RIE). Our formal analysis establishes that (i) the RIE concept amounts to a refinement of the (generalized) REE concept whereby (ii) REE with interior net-trades are generically RIE.

The Scope of Fidelity in Nithard’s Ninth Century

Nithard’s Histories, a remarkable first-hand account of how the Carolingian Empire built by Charlemagne was ripped asunder by his feuding grandsons, provides more than simply a lens through which to view the events relevant to the political maelstrom battering the Carolingian world in the 840s. The work’s basic structure, particular language, and principal concepts reveal a coherent, consistent, and poignant worldview and offer modern scholars a window into the values and perspectives common to the mid-ninth century. This article concentrates on Nithard’s analytical tools and brings into sharp focus the work’s deep continuity, its internal reasoning, its sophistication, and its audience. Nithard analyzed his world as working according to a sacramental logic and identified lapses in fidelity as the fundamental problem. Basic Christian catechetical ideas profoundly inform Nithard’s analysis. The basic consistency of his sacramental logic combined with omnipresent religious concepts illumines a broader elite discourse common to the mid-ninth century.

Differential parenting and children's social understanding

AbstractIn the current study, a curvilinear association was examined between differential parenting and children's social understanding as measured using standardized assessments and behavioral observations. Social understanding was comprised of theory‐of‐mind and behavior indicating understanding of others’ minds (i.e., cognitive sensitivity and internal state talk and reasoning during sibling interactions). Data came from a community sample of 372 children (51.6% males; M age = 5.57, SD = 0.77), their younger siblings (M age = 3.14, SD = 0.27), and their mothers who were observed in their homes. We hypothesized that in families with higher levels of differential parenting, both favored and disfavored older siblings would display poorer social understanding, but that disfavored children would be more negatively impacted. Results from a hierarchical regression analysis indicated an inverse linear effect, rather than a curvilinear relationship, between being favored by mother and siblings’ social understanding. Specifically, disfavored older children showed higher levels of social understanding when interacting with their favored younger sibling. This relationship remained significant after controlling for variables such as age, SES, and language. Findings suggest that differential parenting plays a role in children's ability to understand others.

The dynamic segmentation characteristics of P-augmented matrix and the dynamic intelligent acquisition of P-information

Based on P-augmented matrices theory, this paper put forwards the concepts of the dynamic internal segmentation of internal P-augmented matrix, the dynamic outer segmentation of outer P-augmented matrix, and the dynamic internal-outer segmentation of P-augmented matrix, and gives the segmentation structures and attribute relationships; then based on the concepts above, the concepts of internal P-augmented matrix reasoning, outer P-augmented matrix reasoning and P-augmented matrix reasoning, as well as their structures are proposed; finally, the intelligent acquisition theorems and acquisition criterion of P-information are presented, moreover, based on dynamic internal segmentation and dynamic internal P-augmented matrix reasoning, an application on the intelligent acquisition of internal P-information is shown.

The dynamic segmentation characteristics of P-augmented matrix and the dynamic intelligent acquisition of P-information

Based on P-augmented matrices theory, this paper put forwards the concepts of the dynamic internal segmentation of internal P-augmented matrix, the dynamic outer segmentation of outer P-augmented matrix, and the dynamic internal-outer segmentation of P-augmented matrix, and gives the segmentation structures and attribute relationships; then based on the concepts above, the concepts of internal P-augmented matrix reasoning, outer P-augmented matrix reasoning and P-augmented matrix reasoning, as well as their structures are proposed; finally, the intelligent acquisition theorems and acquisition criterion of P-information are presented, moreover, based on dynamic internal segmentation and dynamic internal P-augmented matrix reasoning, an application on the intelligent acquisition of internal P-information is shown.