Internal Proton Research Articles

A computational model of the glycine tautomerization reaction in aqueous solution

A theoretical study of the internal proton transfer reaction of glycine (Gly) in aqueous solution was performed by means of steered molecular dynamics (SMD) simulation with solute-solvent interaction potentials derived from AMBER van der Waals parameters and QM/MM electrostatic charges in solution. Thermodynamic calculations and the analysis of the solvation structure, dynamic properties, and vibrational spectra associated with the species involved in the tautomerization process were performed. The results obtained for the Gibbs free energy activation and reaction (ΔG(≠) =5.28 kcal mol⁻¹ and ΔG(R)=-6.65 kcal mol⁻¹), the solute-solvent interaction energy of the different glycine structures, and the hydrogen-bond lifetimes are in agreement with previous studies. These hydrations drive an increase in the diffusion coefficient and a decrease in the time of reorientation when the process takes place in the direction Z-Gly → TS-Gly → N-Gly. The vibrational spectrum associated with the normal modes of the bridge hydrogen atoms shows the N-H stretching at ν(s)=3,470 cm⁻¹ and ν(as)=3,470 cm⁻¹, the O-H stretching at 3,205 cm⁻¹, and the NHO bending at about 1,400 cm⁻¹, in agreement with previously reported data.

First Site-Specific Incorporation of a Noncanonical Amino Acid into the Photosynthetic Oxygen-Evolving Complex

In photosystem II (PSII), water is oxidized at the oxygen-evolving complex. This process occurs through a light-induced cycle that produces oxygen and protons. While coupled proton and electron transfer reactions play an important role in PSII and other proteins, direct detection of internal proton transfer reactions is challenging. Here, we demonstrate that the unnatural amino acid, 7-azatryptophan (7AW), has unique, pH-sensitive vibrational frequencies, which are sensitive markers of proton transfer. The intrinsically disordered, PSII subunit, PsbO, which contains a single W residue (Trp241), was engineered to contain 7AW at position 241. Fluorescence shows that 7AW-241 is buried in a hydrophobic environment. Reconstitution of 7AW(241)PsbO to PSII had no significant impact on oxygen evolution activity or flash-dependent protein dynamics. We conclude that directed substitution of 7AW into other structural domains is likely to provide a nonperturbative spectroscopic probe, which can be used to define internal proton pathways in PsbO.

QM/MM Simulation (B3LYP) of the RNase A Cleavage-Transesterification Reaction Supports a Triester AN + DN Associative Mechanism with an O2′ H Internal Proton Transfer

The mechanism of the backbone cleavage-transesterification step of the RNase A enzyme remains controversial even after 60 years of study. We report quantum mechanics/molecule mechanics (QM/MM) free energy calculations for two optimized reaction paths based on an analysis of all structural data and identified by a search for reaction coordinates using a reliable quantum chemistry method (B3LYP), equilibrated structural optimizations, and free energy estimations. Both paths are initiated by nucleophilic attack of the ribose O2' oxygen on the neighboring diester phosphate bond, and both reach the same product state (PS) (a O3'-O2' cyclic phosphate and a O5' hydroxyl terminated fragment). Path 1, resembles the widely accepted dianionic transition-state (TS) general acid (His119)/base (His12) classical mechanism. However, this path has a barrier (25 kcal/mol) higher than that of the rate-limiting hydrolysis step and a very loose TS. In Path 2, the proton initially coordinating the O2' migrates to the nonbridging O1P in the initial reaction path rather than directly to the general base resulting in a triester (substrate as base) AN + DN mechanism with a monoanionic weakly stable intermediate. The structures in the transition region are associative with low barriers (TS1 10, TS2 7.5 kcal/mol). The Path 2 mechanism is consistent with the many results from enzyme and buffer catalyzed and uncatalyzed analog reactions and leads to a PS consistent with the reactive state for the following hydrolysis step. The differences between the consistently estimated barriers in Path 1 and 2 lead to a 10(11) difference in rate strongly supporting the less accepted triester mechanism.

Bis(2,4,6-triamino-1,3,5-triazin-1-ium) 2-[bis(carboxylatomethyl)azaniumyl]acetate trihydrate

The title compound, 2C3H7N6 +·C6H7NO6 2−·3H2O, was obtained by mixing melamine and nitrilo­tri­acetic acid in aqueous solution. There is proton transfer from the nitrilo­triacteic acid to melamine to produce two melaminium cations and an inter­nal proton transfer to generate the [HN(CH2COO)]2− zwitterion. The melaminium cations are arranged in hydrogen-bonded tapes formed by N—H⋯N inter­actions. These tapes extend parallel to the [010] direction and are stacked parallel to the a axis at a mean separation of 3.3559 (11) Å. Between these tapes lie the anions and lattice water mol­ecules. Further O—H⋯O and N—H⋯O hydrogen bonds exist between the water mol­ecules, the anions, and the melaminium cations, generating a three-dimensional array. The crystal examined was found to be twinned by a twofold rotation about the direct lattice direction [100]. The two twin components were present in the ratio 0.5918:0.4082 (14).

Breaking the Carboxyl Rule: LYSINE 96 FACILITATES REPROTONATION OF THE SCHIFF BASE IN THE PHOTOCYCLE OF A RETINAL PROTEIN FROM EXIGUOBACTERIUM SIBIRICUM

A lysine instead of the usual carboxyl group is in place of the internal proton donor to the retinal Schiff base in the light-driven proton pump of Exiguobacterium sibiricum (ESR). The involvement of this lysine in proton transfer is indicated by the finding that its substitution with alanine or other residues slows reprotonation of the Schiff base (decay of the M intermediate) by more than 2 orders of magnitude. In these mutants, the rate constant of the M decay linearly decreases with a decrease in proton concentration, as expected if reprotonation is limited by the uptake of a proton from the bulk. In wild type ESR, M decay is biphasic, and the rate constants are nearly pH-independent between pH 6 and 9. Proton uptake occurs after M formation but before M decay, which is especially evident in D2O and at high pH. Proton uptake is biphasic; the amplitude of the fast phase decreases with a pKa of 8.5 ± 0.3, which reflects the pKa of the donor during proton uptake. Similarly, the fraction of the faster component of M decay decreases and the slower one increases, with a pKa of 8.1 ± 0.2. The data therefore suggest that the reprotonation of the Schiff base in ESR is preceded by transient protonation of an initially unprotonated donor, which is probably the ε-amino group of Lys-96 or a water molecule in its vicinity, and it facilitates proton delivery from the bulk to the reaction center of the protein.

Photocycle and Vectorial Proton Transfer in a Rhodopsin from the Eukaryote Oxyrrhis marina

Retinylidene photoreceptors are ubiquitously present in marine protists as first documented by the identification of green proteorhodopsin (GPR). We present a detailed investigation of a rhodopsin from the protist Oxyrrhis marina (OR1) with respect to its spectroscopic properties and to its vectorial proton transport. Despite its homology to GPR, OR1's features differ markedly in its pH dependence. Protonation of the proton acceptor starts at pH below 4 and is sensitive to the ionic conditions. The mutation of a conserved histidine H62 did not influence the pK(a) value in a similar manner as in other proteorhodopsins where the charged histidine interacts with the proton acceptor forming the so-called His-Asp cluster. Mutational and pH-induced effects were further reflected in the temporal behavior upon light excitation ranging from femtoseconds to seconds. The primary photodynamics exhibits a high sensitivity to the environment of the proton acceptor D100 that are correlated to the different initial states. The mutation of the H62 does not affect photoisomerization at neutral pH. This is in agreement with NMR data indicating the absence of the His-Asp cluster. The subsequent steps in the photocycle revealed protonation reactions at the Schiff base coupled to proton pumping even at low pH. The main electrogenic steps are associated with the reprotonation of the Schiff base and internal proton donor. Hence, OR1 shows a different theme of the His-Asp organization where the low pK(a) of the proton acceptor is not dominated by this interaction, but by other electrostatic factors.

Protonation of caffeine: A theoretical and experimental study

Protonation of caffeine was examined by ion mobility spectrometry equipped with two ionization sources, corona discharge (CD) and UV photoionization. Three peaks were observed in ion mobility spectrum by simultaneously running the two ionization sources. Experimental and theoretical evidence was collected to link the observed peaks to caffeine related ionic species. One peak was attributed to the M+ ion while the other two were assigned to different protonated isomers of caffeine. In the case of CD ionization source, it was observed that different sites of caffeine compete for protonation and their relative intensities, depends on the sample concentration as well as the nature of the reactant ions. The new concept of “internal proton affinity” (IPA) was defined to express the tendency of holding the added proton for each atom in a molecule.

Proton-Bridge Motions in Amine Conjugate Acid Ions Having Intramolecular Hydrogen Bonds to Hydroxyl and Amine Groups

Vibrational spectra of two gaseous cations having NH···O intramolecular ionic hydrogen bonds and of nine protonated di- and polyamines having NH···N internal proton bridges, recorded using IR Multiple Photon Dissociation (IRMPD) of mass-selected ions, are reported. The band positions of hydroxyl stretching frequencies do not shift when a protonated amine becomes hydrogen bonded to oxygen. In three protonated diamines, lower frequency bands (550-650 cm(-1)) disappear upon isotopic substitution, as well as several bands in the 1100-1350 cm(-1) region. By treating the internal proton bridge as a linear triatomic, theory assigns the lowest frequency bands to N-H···N asymmetric stretches. A 2-dimensional model, based on quantization on a surface fit to points calculated using a double hybrid functional B2-P3LYP/cc-pVTZ//B3LYP/6-31G**, predicts their positions accurately. In at least one case, the conjugate acid of 1,5-cis-bis(dimethylamino)cyclooctane, a N-H···N bend shows up in the domain predicted by DFT normal mode calculations, but in most other cases the observed bands have frequencies 20-25% lower than expected for bending vibrations. Protonated Me(2)NCH(2)CMe(2)CH(2)CH(2)CH(2)NMe(2) shows three well-resolved bands at 620, 1200, and 1320 cm(-1), of which the lowest can be assigned to the asymmetric stretch. Other ions observed include doubly protonated 1,2,4,5-(Me(2)NCH(2))(4)-benzene and 1,2,4-(Me(2)NCH(2))(3)-benzene-5-CH(2)OH. Apart from the aforementioned rigid ion derived from the alicyclic diamine, the other ions enjoy greater conformational mobility, and coupling to low-frequency C-C bond torsions may account for the shift of vibrations with N-H···N character to lower frequencies. Low-barrier hydrogen bonding (LBHB) accounts for the fact that N-H···N asymmetric stretching vibrations of near linear proton bridges occur at frequencies below 650 cm(-1).

Theoretical Study of the Oxidation of Phenolates by the [Cu2O2(N,N′‐di‐tert‐butylethylenediamine)2]2+ Complex

Experiments have shown that the μ-η(2):η(2)-peroxodicopper(II) complex [Cu(2)O(2)(N,N'-di-tert-butylethylenediamine)(2)](2+) rapidly oxidizes 2,4-di-tert-butylphenolate into a mixture of catechol and quinone and that, at the extreme temperature of -120 °C, a bis-μ-oxodicopper(III)-phenolate intermediate, labeled complex A, can be observed. These experimental results suggest a new mechanism of action for the dinuclear copper-containing enzyme tyrosinase, involving an early O-O bond-cleavage step. However, whether phenolate binding occurs before or after the cleavage of the O-O bond has not been possible to answer. In this study, hybrid density functional theory is used to study the synthetic reaction and, based on the calculated free-energy profile, a mechanism is suggested for the entire phenolate-oxidation reaction that agrees with the experimental observations. Most importantly, the calculations show that the very first step in the reaction is the cleavage of the O-O bond in the peroxo complex and that, subsequently, the phenolate substrate coordinates to one of the copper ions in the bis-μ-oxodicopper(III) complex to yield the experimentally characterized phenolate intermediate (A). The oxidation of the phenolate substrate into a quinone then occurs in three steps: 1) C-O bond formation, 2) coupled internal proton and electron transfer, and 3) electron transfer coupled to proton transfer from an external donor (acidic workup, experimentally). The first of these steps is rate limiting for the decay of complex A, with a calculated free-energy barrier of 10.7 kcal mol(-1) and a deuterium kinetic isotope effect of 0.90, which are in good agreement with the experimental values of 11.2 kcal mol(-1) and 0.83(±0.09). The tert-butyl substituents on both the phenol substrate and the copper ligands need to be included in the calculations to give a correct description of the reaction mechanism.

Vibrational dynamics of the ${\rm H}_5^+$H5+ and its isotopologues from multiconfiguration time-dependent Hartree calculations

Full-dimensional multiconfiguration time-dependent Hartree (MCTDH) computations are reported for the vibrational states of the H(5)(+) and its H(4)D(+), H(3)D(2)(+), H(2)D(3)(+), HD(4)(+), D(5)(+) isotopologues employing two recent analytical potential energy surfaces of Xie et al. [J. Chem. Phys. 122, 224307 (2005)] and Aguado et al. [J. Chem. Phys. 133, 024306 (2010)]. The potential energy operators are constructed using the n-mode representation adapted to a four-combined mode cluster expansion, including up to seven-dimensional grids, chosen adequately to take advantage in representing the MCTDH wavefunction. An error analysis is performed to quantify the convergence of the potential expansion to reproduce the reference surfaces at the energies of interest. An extensive analysis of the vibrational ground state properties of these isotopes and comparison with the reference diffusion Monte Carlo results by Acioli et al. [J. Chem. Phys. 128, 104318 (2008)] are presented. It is found that these systems are highly delocalized, interconverting between equivalent minima through rotation and internal proton transfer motions even at their vibrational ground state. Isotopic substitution affects the zero-point energy and structure, showing preference in the arrangements of the H and D within the mixed clusters, and the most stable conformers of each isotopomer are the ones with the H in the central position. Vibrational excited states are also computed and by comparing the energies and structures predicted from the two surfaces, the effect of the potential topology on them is discussed.

Spectral Identification of Intermediates Generated during the Reaction of Dioxygen with the Wild-Type and EQ(I-286) Mutant of Rhodobacter sphaeroides Cytochrome c Oxidase

Cytochrome c oxidase from Rhodobacter sphaeroides is frequently used to model the more complex mitochondrial enzyme. The O(2) reduction in both enzymes is generally described by a unidirectional mechanism involving the sequential formation of the ferrous-oxy complex (compound A), the P(R) state, the oxyferryl F form, and the oxidized state. In this study we investigated the reaction of dioxygen with the wild-type reduced R. sphaeroides cytochrome oxidase and the EQ(I-286) mutant using the CO flow-flash technique. Singular value decomposition and multiexponential fitting of the time-resolved optical absorption difference spectra showed that three apparent lifetimes, 18 μs, 53 μs, and 1.3 ms, are sufficient to fit the kinetics of the O(2) reaction of the wild-type enzyme. A comparison of the experimental intermediate spectra with the corresponding intermediate spectra of the bovine enzyme revealed that P(R) is not present in the reaction mechanism of the wild-type R. sphaeroides aa(3). Transient absorbance changes at 440 and 610 nm support this conclusion. For the EQ(I-286) mutant, in which a key glutamic residue in the D proton pathway is replaced by glutamine, two lifetimes, 16 and 108 μs, were observed. A spectral analysis of the intermediates shows that the O(2) reaction in the EQ(I-286) mutant terminates at the P(R) state, with 70% of heme a becoming oxidized. These results indicate significant differences in the kinetics of O(2) reduction between the bovine and wild-type R. sphaeroides aa(3) oxidases, which may arise from differences in the relative rates of internal electron and proton movements in the two enzymes.

Thermionic emission of protons across a grain boundary in 5 mol% Y-doped SrZrO3, a hydrogen pump

Given the fact that polycrystalline SrZrO3 doped with 5 mol% Y3+ (p-SZY5), a proton-conducting solid electrolyte with superior chemical stability, has attracted considerable attention over the past years due to its potential for various applications including hydrogen pumps, it is rather unusual that such little information is available in literature regarding the electrical nature of the grain boundary in this material, although the grain boundary may determine its proton conductivity. Here we report the results of our investigation on the conduction mechanism at the grain boundary in p-SZY5. We clearly demonstrate that the current–voltage (I–V) characteristic of the grain boundary is consistent with thermionic emission current over a back-to-back Schottky barrier, suggesting that such a potential barrier is present at the grain boundary in p-SZY5 to limit the internal proton current. More importantly, based on the capacitance–voltage relation, we were able to deduce the values of both the potential-barrier height and the dopant concentration in p-SZY5.

ChemInform Abstract: Computation of Kinetic Isotope Effects for Enzymatic Reactions

AbstractReview: 72 refs.

Water Soluble Polymers as Proton Exchange Membranes for Fuel Cells

The relentless increase in the demand for useable power from energy-hungry economies continues to drive energy-material related research. Fuel cells, as a future potential power source that provide clean-at-the-point-of-use power offer many advantages such as high efficiency, high energy density, quiet operation, and environmental friendliness. Critical to the operation of the fuel cell is the proton exchange membrane (polymer electrolyte membrane) responsible for internal proton transport from the anode to the cathode. PEMs have the following requirements: high protonic conductivity, low electronic conductivity, impermeability to fuel gas or liquid, good mechanical toughness in both the dry and hydrated states, and high oxidative and hydrolytic stability in the actual fuel cell environment. Water soluble polymers represent an immensely diverse class of polymers. In this comprehensive review the initial focus is on those members of this group that have attracted publication interest, principally: chitosan, poly (ethylene glycol), poly (vinyl alcohol), poly (vinylpyrrolidone), poly (2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid) and poly (styrene sulfonic acid). The paper then considers in detail the relationship of structure to functionality in the context of polymer blends and polymer based networks together with the effects of membrane crosslinking on IPN and semi IPN architectures. This is followed by a review of pore-filling and other impregnation approaches. Throughout the paper detailed numerical results are given for comparison to today’s state-of-the-art Nafion® based materials.

Ultrafast Photodynamics of Drugs in Nanocavities: Cyclodextrins and Human Serum Albumin Protein

In this feature article, we discuss recent advances in studying ultrafast dynamic and structural aspects of host-guest interactions. Steady-state and time-resolved techniques exploring events from the femto- to nanosecond regime were used to examine the ultrafast photodynamics and subsequent events in selected nanostructures of the formed complexes. These consist of aromatic systems, biologically relevant molecules, and drugs trapped within cyclodextrins (CD) and human serum albumin (HSA) protein pockets. We examine the effects exerted by these chemical and biological cavitands on internal twisting motions, proton transfer and charge transfer, and cis-trans isomerization reactions that may occur in the confined molecular systems. In addition, the influence of a restricting environment on the interaction of guest molecules with biological water is considered. The dynamic details of the complexes (diffusion, early interactions, formation, stability, internal guest diffusion, and conformational changes) and the excited-state relaxation pathways, rate constants of the involved processes, and changes in the electronic distribution within encapsulated guests gave clues to elucidate their photobehavior and are relevant to the photostability and delivery of drugs when using nanocarriers.

Glutamate 268 Regulates Transport Probability of the Anion/Proton Exchanger ClC-5

The Cl(-)/H(+) exchange mediated by ClC transporters can be uncoupled by external SCN(-) and mutations of the proton glutamate, a conserved residue at the internal side of the protein. We show here for the mammalian ClC transporter ClC-5 that acidic internal pH led to a greater increase in currents upon exchanging extracellular Cl(-) for SCN(-). However, transport uncoupling, unitary current amplitudes, and the voltage dependence of the depolarization-induced activation were not altered by low pH values. Therefore, it is likely that an additional gating process regulates ClC-5 transport. Higher internal [H(+)] and the proton glutamate mutant E268H altered the ratio between ClC-5 transport and nonlinear capacitance, indicating that the gating charge movements in ClC-5 arise from incomplete transport cycles and that internal protons increase the transport probability of ClC-5. This was substantiated by site-directed sulfhydryl modification of the proton glutamate mutant E268C. The mutation exhibited small transport currents together with prominent gating charge movements. The charge restoration using a negatively charged sulfhydryl reagent reinstated also the WT phenotype. Neutralization of the charge of the gating glutamate 211 by the E211C mutation abolished the effect of internal protons, showing that the increased transport probability of ClC-5 results from protonation of this residue. S168P (a mutation that decreases the anion affinity of the central binding site) reduced also the internal pH dependence of ClC-5. These results support the idea that protonation of the gating glutamate 211 at the central anion-binding site of ClC-5 is mediated by the proton glutamate 268.

From Hexaoxy-[6]Pericyclynes toCarbo-Cyclohexadienes,Carbo-Benzenes, and Dihydro-Carbo-Benzenes: Synthesis, Structure, and Chromophoric and Redox Properties

When targeting the quadrupolar p-dianisyltetraphenyl-carbo-benzene by reductive treatment of a hexaoxy-[6]pericyclyne precursor 3 with SnCl(2)/HCl, a strict control of the conditions allowed for the isolation of three C(18)-macrocyclic products: the targeted aromatic carbo-benzene 1, a sub-reduced non-aromatic carbo-cyclohexadiene 4A, and an over-reduced aromatic dihydro-carbo-benzene 5A. Each of them was fully characterized by its absorption and NMR spectra, which were interpreted by comparison with calculated spectra from static structures optimized at the DFT level. According to the nucleus-independent chemical shift (NICS) value (NICS≈-13 ppm), the macrocyclic aromaticity of 5A is indicated to be equivalent to that of 1. This is confirmed by the strong NMR spectroscopic deshielding of the ortho-CH protons of the aryl substituents, but also by the strong shielding of the internal proton of the endocyclic trans-CH=CH double bond that results from the hydrogenation of one of the C≡C bonds of 3. Both the aromatics 1 and 5A exhibit a high crystallinity, revealed by SEM and TEM images, which allowed for a structural determination by using an X-ray microsource. A good agreement with calculated molecular structures was found, and columnar assemblies of the C(18) macrocycles were evidenced in the crystal packing. The non-aromatic carbo-cyclohexadiene 4A is shown to be an intermediate in the formation of 1 from 3. It exhibits a remarkable dichromism in solution, which is related to the occurrence of two intense bands in the visible region of its UV/Vis spectrum. These properties could be attributed to the dibutatrienylacetylene (DBA) unit that occurs in the three chromophores, but which is not involved in a macrocyclic π-delocalization in 4A only. A versatile redox behavior of the carbo-chromophores is evidenced by cyclic voltammetry and was analyzed by calculation of the ionization potential, electron affinity, and frontier molecular orbitals.

The Membrane Modulates Internal Proton Transfer in Cytochrome c Oxidase

The functionality of membrane proteins is often modulated by the surrounding membrane. Here, we investigated the effect of membrane reconstitution of purified cytochrome c oxidase (CytcO) on the kinetics and thermodynamics of internal electron and proton-transfer reactions during O(2) reduction. Reconstitution of the detergent-solubilized enzyme in small unilamellar soybean phosphatidylcholine vesicles resulted in a lowering of the pK(a) in the pH dependence profile of the proton-uptake rate. This pK(a) change resulted in decreased proton-uptake rates in the pH range of ~6.5-9.5, which is explained in terms of lowering of the pK(a) of an internal proton donor within CytcO. At pH 7.5, the rate decreased to the same extent when vesicles were prepared from the pure zwitterionic lipid 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC) or the anionic lipid 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho(1-rac-glycerol) (DOPG). In addition, a small change in the internal Cu(A)-heme a electron equilibrium constant was observed. This effect was lipid-dependent and explained in terms of a lower electrostatic potential within the membrane-spanning part of the protein with the anionic DOPG lipids than with the zwitterionic DOPC lipids. In conclusion, the data show that the membrane significantly modulates internal charge-transfer reactions and thereby the function of the membrane-bound enzyme.

Proton-coupled electron transfer kinetics for the hydrogen evolution reaction of hangman porphyrins

Cobalt hangman porphyrins catalyze the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). The hangman group is observed to facilitate HER by mediating a proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) reaction. The details of the PCET pathway have been determined by comparing rate constants associated with the ET and PT processes of the hangman system to those of the corresponding values measured for porphyrins that lack an internal proton relay. A rapid intramolecular proton transfer from the carboxylic acid hanging group to the reduced cobalt centre of 8.5 × 106 s−1 provides a facile pathway for the formation of Co(II)H, which leads directly to H2 generation.

Ground-State Proton Transfer in Green Fluorescent Protein Measured by NMR

Proton transfer plays an important role in the optical properties of fluorescent proteins. Excited-state proton transfer (ESPT) is responsible for wtGFP's anomalously large Stokes shift and a number of FPs have found use as in vivo pH indicators. Unlike ESPT, ground-state proton transfer cannot be synchronously initiated (i.e. with an excitation pulse) and must be studied more indirectly. We report an NMR method in which GFP is labeled with a 13C at the position adjacent the phenol hydroxyl on the chromophore. This position is a highly specific and sensitive reporter of the ionization state as measured by direct-detect 13C-NMR. Through lineshape analysis and time-resolved NMR spectroscopy we obtain kinetic parameters for proton transfer. We find that GFPs having internal proton transfer and capable of ESPT show rapid interconversion of the protonated and deprotonated states (on the order of microseconds) while GFPs which must transfer protons externally to the solvent have much slower equilibration (on the order of milliseconds). Parallel measurements with less direct fluorescence correlation spectroscopy reveal interesting discrepancies perhaps suggestive of light-driven structural dynamics.