Internal Migrants In China Research Articles

The social income inequality, social integration and health status of internal migrants in China

BackgroundTo examine the interaction between social income inequality, social integration, and health status among internal migrants (IMs) who migrate between regions in China.MethodsWe used the data from the 2014 Internal Migrant Dynamic Monitoring Survey in China, which sampled 15,999 IMs in eight cities in China. The Gini coefficient at the city level was calculated to measure social income inequality and was categorized into low (0.2 < Gini <= 0.3), medium (0.3 < Gini <= 0.4), high (0.4 < x < = 0.5), and very high (Gini >0.5). Health status was measured based upon self-reported health, subjective well-being, and perceptions of stress and mental health. Social integration was measured from four perspectives (acculturation and integration willingness, social insurance, economy, social communication). Linear mixed models were used to examine the interaction effects between health statuses, social integration, and the Gini coefficient.ResultsFactors of social integration, such as economic integration and acculturation and integration willingness, were significantly related to health. Social income inequality had a negative relationship with the health status of IMs. For example, IMs in one city, Qingdao, with a medium income inequality level (Gini = 0.329), had the best health statuses and better social integration. On the other hand, IMs in another city, Shenzhen, who had a large income inequality (Gini = 0.447) were worst in health statues and had worse social integration.ConclusionPolicies or programs targeting IMs should support integration willingness, promote a sense of belonging, and improve economic equality. In the meantime, social activities to facilitate employment and create social trust should also be promoted. At the societal level, structural and policy changes are necessary to promote income equity to promote IMs’ general health status.

The Migration, Mental Stress, and Tobacco use of Internal Migrants in China: The Moderating Effect of the Social Context of the Host Society

ABSTRACTBackground: Previous studies on the relationship between mental stress and the tobacco use of internal migrants have not fully considered the social context of the host society. Objectives: This study aims to examine how mental stress influences cigarette smoking in internal migrants in China by considering the social context of the host society. Methods: We used the RUMiC data that were collected in 15 cities distributed throughout 9 provinces of China. A total of 8,446 and 5,426 migrant workers were interviewed in 2008 and 2009, respectively. We selected individuals based on the criteria of age, salary, and hukou status. A total of 8,880 observations are valid for this study. This research used the logistic regression method to test the association between mental stress and the tobacco use of internal migrants. Results: The results show that mental stress is not necessarily associated with the tobacco use of internal migrants. However, the effects of mental stress on tobacco use are moderated by the social context of the host society. Conclusions: This article calls for more attention to be paid to the moderate effect of social context in the host society on the association between mental stress and cigarette smoking of internal migrants. Moreover, this article underscores the importance of factors related to local societies in making and enacting tobacco control policies for migrants in developing countries.

Network Effects on Labor Contracts of Internal Migrants in China: A Spatial Autoregressive Model

This paper studies the fact that 37 percent of the internal migrants in China do not sign a labor contract with their employers, as revealed in a nationwide survey. These contract-free jobs pay lower hourly wages, require longer weekly work hours, and provide less insurance or on-the-job training than regular jobs with contracts. We find that the co-villager networks play an important role in a migrant's decision on whether to accept such insecure and irregular jobs. By employing a comprehensive nationwide survey in 2011 in the spatial autoregressive logit model, we show that the common behavior of not signing contracts in the co-villager network increases the probability that a migrant accepts a contract-free job. We provide three possible explanations on how networks influence migrants' contract decisions: job referral mechanism, limited information on contract benefits, and the mini labor union formed among co-villagers, which substitutes for a formal contract. In the sub-sample analysis, we also find that the effects are larger for migrants whose jobs were introduced by their co-villagers, male migrants, migrants with rural Hukou, short-term migrants, and less educated migrants. The heterogeneous effects for migrants of different employer types, industries, and home provinces provide policy implications.

Intimate partner violence against married rural-to-urban migrant workers in eastern China: prevalence, patterns, and associated factors.

BackgroundIntimate partner violence (IPV) is a significant public health issue among married rural-to-urban migrant workers, the largest group of internal migrants in China. This study aims to explore the prevalence, patterns and associated factors of intimate partner violence against married rural-to-urban migrant workers in eastern China.MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted in Zhejiang province in China between July 2015 and April 2016, and a total of 1,744 married rural-to-urban migrant workers ultimately took part in the study. Conflict Tactics Scales and several short demographic questions were applied. Data were principally analyzed with logistic regression.ResultsThe majority of married rural-to-urban migrant workers were middle-aged couples with a low education level and a relatively long-term duration of migration in fixed migrant cities. Nearly 45% of married rural-to-urban migrant workers were experienced at least one incident of intimate partner violence during the past 12 months. The joint occurrence of multiple forms of violence is the most commonly reported features of intimate partner violence, especially three overlapping patterns of intimate partner violence. Some individual (education and age), relationship (marital satisfaction, premarital sex and extramarital affairs) and social (duration of migration and number of migratory cities) factors of the respondents, were negatively or positively associated with intimate partner violence against married rural-to-urban migrant workers.ConclusionThe results indicated that one out of two married rural-to-urban migrant workers experienced at least one incident of intimate partner violence during the past 12 months in China. Accordingly, there is an obvious demand of intervention and treatment activities to prevent and reduce the occurrence of intimate partner violence among the millions of migrant workers in China.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12889-016-3896-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Demographic, socio-economic, and health factors associated with use of health services among internal migrants in China: an analysis of data from a nationwide cross-sectional survey

BackgroundIn 2014, approximately 253 million Chinese migrants had left their hometowns and were working in cities. Inequalities in demographic, socioeconomic, and health status for migrants place them at increased risk of health problems and marginalised them in the use of health-care services. We aimed to identify the inequalities that limit the use of health services among internal migrants in China, and to provide a reference point for health policy. MethodsData were collected from 23 505 participants aged 15 years or older, from the 2014 China Labor Force Dynamic Survey (a nationwide cross-sectional survey covering 29 provinces with a multi-stage cluster, and stratified, probability sampling strategy) conducted by Sun Yat-sen University. Logistic regression analyses were used to study the associations between demographic (age, sex, marital status, type of hukou (the mandatory system of household registration), and migration status), socioeconomic (annual income, education, and social class) and health status (self-perceived general health and several chronic illnesses) variables and the use of health services (clinic visits during the past 2 weeks and hospital admission during the past 12 months). Ethical approval was obtained from Sun Yat-sen University (Guangdong, China). Informed consent was obtained from all participants. Findings2141 migrants and 21 364 residents were included. 71 (3·3%) migrants and 1296 (6·1%) residents underwent hospital admission during the past 12 months (OR 0·53, 95% CI 0·42–0·68); however, rates of 2-week clinic visits did not differ between the groups. After controlling for other variables, patients with more insurance, lower self-perceived general health, and a higher number of chronic illnesses were more likely to have 2-week clinical visits (all p<0·0001) and hospital admission during the past 12 months (all p<0·0001) compared with patients with less insurance, higher self-perceived general health, and a lower number of chronic illnesses, respectively; people from disadvantaged classes were less likely to be hospitalised (OR 0·92, 95% CI 0·86–0·98) than those from advantaged classes. InterpretationThis study showed that there are inequalities in demographic, socioeconomic, and health status associated with the use of health services for migrants in China. Prudent health policy with equitable use of health services to eliminate these inequalities should be a priority in shaping China's health-care system reform. FundingThis study had no funding.

Are condom-promotion interventions reaching internal migrants in China? Integrated evidence from two cross-sectional surveys

ABSTRACTBehavioral interventions containing behavior change techniques (BCTs) that do not reach the target populations sufficiently will fail to accomplish their desired outcome. To guide sexually transmitted infection prevention policy for internal migrants in China, this study examines the extent to which BCTs aiming at increasing condom use reach the migrants and investigates the preference of the target population for these techniques among 364 migrants and 44 healthcare workers (HCWs) in Shenzhen, China. The results show that condom-promotion techniques that had been offered by HCWs to internal migrants reached a limited proportion of the population (range of reach ratio: 17.6–55.0%), although there appears to be a good match between what is offered and what is preferred by Chinese internal migrants regarding condom-promotion techniques (rank difference ≤ 1). Our findings highlight the need to increase the reach of condom-promotion techniques among Chinese internal migrants, and suggest techniques that are likely to reach the target population and match their preferred health education approaches.

Tracking rural-to-urban migration in China: Lessons from the 2005 inter-census population survey

We examined migration in China using the 2005 inter-census population survey, in which migrants were registered at both their place of original (hukou) residence and at their destination. We find evidence that the estimated number of internal migrants in China is extremely sensitive to the enumeration method. We estimate that the traditional destination-based survey method fails to account for more than a third of migrants found using comparable origin-based methods. The ‘missing’ migrants are disproportionately young, male, and holders of rural hukou. We find that origin-based methods are more effective at capturing migrants who travel short distances for short periods, whereas destination-based methods are more effective when entire households have migrated and no remaining family members are located at the hukou location. We conclude with a set of policy recommendations for the design of population surveys in countries with large migrant populations.

Internal migration and the health of the returned population: a nationally representative study of China.

BackgroundChina had 236 million internal migrants in 2012 and the majority of them migrated from rural to urban areas. The research based on medical and epidemical records found that the migrants had worse health than the urban residents, but the household and working place investigations reported better health status. The sick or unhealthy migrants are likely to return to their hometowns, which in turn may cause a report bias or over-estimation of the health status of rural-to-urban migrants in China. This paper explores the association of migration status and the physical and psychological health of Chinese internal migrants.MethodsNationally representative household survey data from the China Labor-force Dynamics Survey 2012 (CLDS) were used to analyze the association between the migration status and the health status of internal migrants in China. Migration status of the respondents was measured by hukou status and migration experience and all respondents were divided into four groups: returned population, migrant population, urban residents, and rural residents. Health status of respondents was measured by self-reported physical and psychological health.ResultsMigration experience was associated with the physical health of the returned population. The physical health of the returned population was worse than the migrant population and was distinguished by age and sex. The physical health status of migrant population was significantly better than rural residents, but not significantly better than urban residents. However, the association between migration status and psychological health was not statistically significant. Besides migration status, the socioeconomic status (SES) had a positive correlation with both physical and psychological health status, while occupational hazards exerted negative influence.ConclusionThe results indicate a tight association between migration experience and health status. The internal unhealthy migrants were more likely to return to their hometown and the migrant population might have limited health advantage.

Social integration of Chinese internal migrants: the living conditions of domestic migrants (agricultural to nonagricultural) and migrant workers

This article consists two main sources of Chinese internal migrants. Particular attention is paid not only to differences between agricultural to non agricultural migrants and migrants workers, but also to the problems of social integration. The article describes the reasons for the rise, development of internal migrants in China and gives out solutions to the problem, especially how to improve their life.

Cultural orientation and social capital as predictors of condom use among internal migrants in China

Background: The global literature has revealed that cultural orientation, adaptation and social capital may influence HIV-related sexual behaviours among migrants. However, whether cultural orientations influence adaptation and social capital and thereby affect sexual behaviour is not well understood. Method: This study examined whether individualistic and collectivistic orientations, adaptation and social capital have direct and indirect effects on condom use among rural-to-urban migrants in China. We collected data from 641 migrants aged 17 to 30 years, in Beijing, China. Participants completed scales on individualistic orientation, collectivistic orientation, adaptation, social capital and condom use. Structural equation modelling was used for model testing. Results: Condom use was positively associated with an individualistic orientation and social capital. An individualistic orientation had an indirect effect on condom use via social capital. Women reported higher levels of condom use than men. Conclusion: Future sexual risk prevention and intervention programmes to improve sexual health should pay more attention to building social capital and engaging with relevant cultural factors.

A qualitative and quantitative exploration of determinants and intervention methods for increasing condom use among internal migrants in China: results of a three-round Delphi study

Internal migrants have been repeatedly characterized as “the tipping point” for HIV epidemic in China. This study is a step towards the development of a successful behavioral HIV prevention intervention among Chinese internal migrants. It aims to explore important and changeable determinants of condom use, and inspect effective and feasible methods to increase condom use for the target population.

Preventing HIV transmission in Chinese internal migrants: a behavioral approach.

This study is a step towards a behavioral intervention to prevent HIV transmission among Chinese internal migrants. To explore important and changeable determinants of condom use and inspect effective and feasible methods to increase condom use for the target population, we conducted a three-round web-based Delphi study among a panel of 62 experts between October 2012 and March 2013. The panelists were purposely selected using a stepwise procedure to represent topic-related areas of expertise. The response rate per round ranges from 21% to 81%. The panelists identified 19 possible determinants of condom use and reported 16 intervention methods they considered successful. They agreed that attitude towards condom use was the most important and changeable determinant, while applying behavioral theory, increasing sexual education and condom access, performing worksite health promotion, detecting risk factors, and working closely with relevant organizations and the government were effective and feasible methods to increase condom use among internal migrants in China. In conclusion, results of this study highlight the importance of attitude in changing condom use and underscore the need to apply behavior theory and integrate multiple educational approaches for developing behavioral HIV prevention interventions targeting internal migrants in China.

Networking Activities and Perceptions of HIV Risk Among Male Migrant Market Vendors in China

HIV research among internal migrants in China has not fully explored the contexts and perceptions of "risk". In 2011, urban markets in Liuzhou, China were mapped, and sixty male vendors, age 22-56, were selected for in-depth interviews on migration, social and family life, and perceptions and practices of sexual risk behavior. Participants were evenly divided among higher income shop and small stall vendors. All men were sexually active. Only the shop vendors reported non-marital sexual partners, including concurrent partners (n = 15), commercial partners (n = 10), and other sexual relationships (n = 11). Shop vendors engaged in networking activities that facilitated commercial and non-commercial high-risk sex. Perceptions of HIV risk from commercial sex led some men to doubt the protective ability of condoms and rely on local (unproven) self-protection techniques. Networking activities played a role in high-risk sex and shaping migrants' risk perceptions and health practices. The networks created through these processes could also be used to facilitate health promotion activities.

Chinese citizenship ‘after orientalism’: academic narratives on internal migrants in China

In this article I enquire into the possibility of citizenship ‘after orientalism’ by examining the writing of Chinese academics on internal migrants in China. The popular narratives on migrants represent them as ‘peasant workers in need of becoming urban citizens’. These representations are based on an understanding of citizenship as necessarily urban and modern, which is reminiscent of Weber's theory of citizenship, and is based on mechanisms of ‘internal orientalism’. I argue that contrary to the popular understanding of ‘post-oriental’ as ‘resistance to the West’, it is the process of the boundary-transgression between rural and urban, rather than non-Western ideas of citizenship, that opens space for citizenship ‘after orientalism’ in China. This process of boundary-transgression can be mapped through new practices of naming and narrative-setting in the literature on internal migrants, which emphasise subjective character of group boundaries and appeal for recognition of rural and migrant identities. It is through these instances of boundary-transgression between urban and rural that the orientalism embedded within the notion of citizenship in China is challenged.

Economic returns to speaking ‘standard Mandarin’ among migrants in China's urban labour market

This article uses data from the China Urban Labour Survey administered across 12 cities in 2005 to estimate the economic returns to speaking standard Mandarin among internal migrants in China's urban labour market. The article builds on studies that estimate the economic returns to international immigrants of being fluent in the major language of the destination country and studies that estimate the economic returns to proficiency in the national language among groups of people who speak a minority language. Importantly, we control for potential endogeneity bias in the estimates of the effect of language fluency on earnings. We find that for migrants as a whole, there are considerable economic returns to speaking standard Mandarin. We also find gender differences. While the coefficient on fluency in standard Mandarin is statistically significant and large for females, the coefficient on fluency is statistically insignificant for males. One possible explanation for this finding is that female migrant workers are engaged more in occupations which have greater contact with urban locals and hence the return to investment in language skills is higher.

From the Margins to the Centre: The Uyghur Challenge in Beijing

Recent literature on Uyghur identity in China makes clear that Uyghurs today not only have perceptions and narratives relating to their identity which challenge official ones, but also that these are expressed publicly in literature, art and everyday practice. However, to date this agency has been highlighted only in the context of the Uyghurs' native-place, Xinjiang, while the little that has been written on representations of Uyghur identity in nationally distributed media and culture suggests that Uyghurs are still completely marginalized and voiceless. This article challenges this view by shifting the focus to Uyghurs who migrated to Beijing and by showing that they have been able to achieve an independent public voice that extends not only beyond Xinjiang but also beyond China. The article explores the role that Uyghur artists and entrepreneurs, and Xinjiang restaurants in Beijing play in challenging the orthodox representations of Uyghur identity in China and argues that although there are only a few thousand Uyghurs in the city they play a significant role in the negotiation of Uyghur identity, representation and nationalism. The article also challenges the widely held view that internal migrants in China are silent and politically powerless.