Internal Migrant Workers Research Articles

A descriptive study of gambling practices and problem gambling among internal migrants in Muse, Northern Shan, Myanmar.

ABSTRACTDue to rapid economic growth in China, many gambling sites have emerged along the neighboring countries, including Myanmar, which place migrants at risk of developing gambling problems. This study aimed at identifying: i) types of gambling, ii) gambling involvement and intensity, and iii) the associations with problem gambling. A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted in Muse, Myanmar. A convenience sample of 273 internal migrants (18–49 years) filled a self-administered questionnaire. Chi-square tests and multiple logistic regression explored associations between gambling practices and problem gambling. Among the categories of gambling, the popular gambling types were lottery games (Aung Bar Lay, Thone-Lone and Nhit-Lone) and card games, as well as the use of Electronic Gambling Machines (EGMs). An average number of past-year gambling types involved and of gambling types engaged in regularly were 1.61 (SD=0.95) and 1.22 (SD=0.70), respectively. In association with PG, Nhit-Lone, EGMs, cards, and dice games were strongly associated among the gambling types. Those with PG had a higher number of involvement by past-year gambling types (1.92 vs. 1.18 for no PG) and spent 5 times higher amount of money on gambling. In conclusion, this study showed that types of gambling, such as Nhit-Lone, cards and dice games and higher involvement and intensity were associated with problem gambling. The findings provide new and important insights into gambling behavior among internal migrant workers in the border area with China and highlight the need for culturally specific preventive measures for the Myanmar population, with preference to gambling types.

Association between Social Capital, Mental Health and Quality of Life among Migrant Workers in Myanmar

Introduction: During these decades, Myanmar has faced mass internal migration as a result of pull and push factors. The concepts and concerns related to Quality of Life on internal migrant workers are different from the general population. Migration gives rise to huge stresses and depression. Methods and Materials: Cross-sectional study was conducted among 1,182 migrants. To assess socioeconomic status, health behaviors, mental health status, social capital, accessibility to health care services, and QOL. The Generalized Linear Mixed Model was used to determine the association between social capital, mental health and QOL after controlling the other covariates. Result: About one third of respondents were factory workers and had low level of education. Regarding the level of good, fair and poor QOL were 26.82% (95% CI: 24.37-29.42), 71/74% (95% CI: 69.10-74.24) and 1.44% (95% CI: 0.89-2.30) respectively. Cognitive social capital (AOR=2.51, 95%CI: 1.14-5.55 p value<0.05), structural social capital (AOR= 2.14, 95%CI: 1.22-3.76, p value=0.008) and depression (AOR= 2.13, 95%CI: 1.25-3.62, p value=0.006) were associated with QOL. Not like the other studies, stress was not associated with QOL. The other factors associated with good QOL were monthly family income, living with related family members in a house and burden of medical services costs. Discussion: Only one-fourth of internal migrant workers had good quality of life. The findings highlighted to develop policies aimed to improve QOL in order to reducing stress and depression among migrants by promoting social capital. In order to achieve the sustainable development goals, it is important to make investment on health of the migrant workers.

인도의 ‘스마트 시티’ 조성이 국내 이주노동자의 임금노동에 미치는 영향 : 구르가온의 오토릭샤왈라 사례를 중심으로

본 연구는 인도 구르가온의 오토릭샤왈라에 대한 인류학적 현지조사를 토대로 인도의 스마트 교통확산이 국내 이주노동자의 임금노동 환경에 미치는 영향을 분석하고 있다. 인도의 ‘스마트 시티 미션’은 모디정부가 그린필드개발, 도시개선, 재개발, 전도시 솔루션의 테마를 토대로 추진하고 있는 전인도 도시개발정책이다. 구르가온은 2015년에 스마트 시티 파일럿 도시로 선정된 이후 전도시 솔루션의 일환으로 우버택시와 주구누오토릭샤 같은 스마트 교통을 수용하였다. 우버는 현금 없는 인도로 전환되는 과정에 핀테크 결제방식 도입, 친절한 서비스, 안전성, 합리적인 요금체계, 회사의 인센티브정책 및 중산층의 새로운 투자사업으로 선호되면서 구르가온에서 수요와 공급이 급격히 증가하였다. 여기에 주구누오토릭샤의 배달서비스가 도입되면서 우버와 주구누는 구르가온에서 각각 이동과 배달부문에서 스마트한 운송의 이미지를 구축하였다. 반면에 인도의 화폐개혁, 스마트 교통의 등장, 정부의 오토릭샤왈라 단속강화는 구르가온에서 오토릭샤 부문에 집중해 있는 국내 이주노동자의 소득감소로 이어졌다. 게다가 오토릭샤왈라는 구르가온의 도시정책에 둔감하여 스마트 교통의 확산에 대한 대응력이 떨어진다는 근본적인 한계가 있었다. 교육받지 못하고 가난한 오토릭샤왈라의 사회경제적 여건은 구르가온 도시민의 절반 이상을 차지하는 국내 이주노동자의 임금노동 과정에 매우 위협적인 요인으로 작용하고 있었다. 본 연구는 전세계가 인간의 삶의 질 향상을 목표로 강조하는 스마트 시티 구현과정에서 사회적 소수자가 간과되는 측면을 재고한다는 점에서 연구의 의의가 있다.

Sexual Risks and Policing among Male Migrant and Non-migrant Market Vendors in Central Asia.

The following study examined associations between sexual risk behaviors and policing among external migrant, internal migrant, and non-migrant male market workers in Almaty, Kazakhstan. Negative binomial regression and logistic regressions examined associations between sexual risk behaviors and policing (questioning by market officials and migration police, and arrest) for 1342 external, internal, and non-migrant workers recruited using respondent-driven sampling (RDS). Incidence rate ratios (IRR) and adjusted odds ratios (OR) were stratified by migration status. External migrants were more likely than non-migrants to experience questioning by market officials (IRR=2.07, p<0.01), migration police (IRR=3.60, p<0.001), and arrest (OR=5.32, p<0.001). When stratified by migration status, being under the influence of drugs or alcohol (IRR=3.04, p<0.01) and sex with men (IRR=2.71, p<0.05) were associated with being questioned or harassed by market police among external migrants. External migrant who reported having more than one sex partner while traveling were also more likely to report being arrested than external migrants (OR=3.92, p<0.05). Meeting HIV prevention needs of labor migrants demands acknowledging the role of policing and allocating sufficient resources to support the implementation of HIV prevention programs in these settings.

Representing Dagongmei (Female Migrant Workers) in Contemporary China

Neither comrades nor yet full-fledged consumers, Chinese dagongmei (female migrant workers) and their experience(s) are an essential part of the story of China’s globalizing economy. The growing body of scholarly literature on internal migrant workers exposes a chilling underside to China’s passionate embrace of market-oriented reform—which certainly should give pause to those otherwise inclined to hail the rise of global capitalism as a glorious shift toward democracy and greater personal freedom. My particular interest in the subject lies in the intersection of the rural-to-urban labor migration phenomenon, gender, and the realm of contemporary cultural expression. This article examines the diverse array of literary and visual representations of dagongmei , a site of distinctly post-Mao ideological contestation. It begins with a discussion of dagongmei within popular and mainstream media. It then turns to the broad historical and cultural contexts that have spurred the grassroots emergence of worker literature in recent decades in southern China. The article concludes with an analysis of work by two women writers―poet Zheng Xiaoqiong and novelist Wang Lili―that offers highly gendered accounts of the contemporary migrant labor experience.

Unsettled “structure of feeling” of Chinese migrant workers – cases from the service sector of Shanghai

ABSTRACTThe suffering, struggling status and controversial political identity of Chinese internal migrant workers have put them in the academic spotlight for decades. An abundance of literature has analysed the problems faced by Chinese migrant workers from mainly three theoretical perspectives. However, not enough attention has been paid to migrant workers’ subjective understandings and feelings about their work and lives. The current article tries to illuminate the ambivalent feelings of migrant workers of the service sector in Shanghai, based on a brief comparison between migrant workers of three Asian countries, and the interviews with 16 Chinese migrant workers, two government officers and two local citizens in Yan community attached to Po district of Shanghai. It is argued that the migrant workers share an unsettled “structure of feeling” in everyday practices. They simultaneously feel bewildered and sanguine, depressed in a sombre mood and happy, passionate and indifferent. The unsettlement of the structure of feeling constitutes a political passivity for migrant workers. It is urgent to find ways to break up such a stalemate of consciousness.

Bringing Class Struggles Back: A Marxian Analysis of the State and Class Relations in China

ABSTRACTThis article finds both the ‘weakening-state’ hypothesis of neo-liberalism and the ‘state as autonomous actor’ approach adopted by many current China studies dissatisfying towards an understanding of the Chinese state. The authors have therefore conducted a Marxian investigation of the Chinese state. We argue that the state is socially embedded; it is the field and condensation of class struggle. The gulf separating global capital and internal migrant workers on interests such as wage standards, pensions, and other labour regulations in China is a major form of class struggle, which continues to shape the state’s policies and behaviours. The attack on Chinese workers by global capital after the global economic crisis in 2008 precipitated a new wave of migrant worker protests and contributed to their articulation of worker demands on the Chinese state. To substantiate these arguments, we examine the (global) capital and (migrant) labour relations during and after the global economic crisis in 2008, with detailed analysis of the Honda strike and Yue Yuen strike, which took place in 2010 and 2014, respectively. The central theme is that the Chinese state’s development and labour policies can be fully comprehended only by bringing class struggle back into the analysis.

Health issues affecting female internal migrant workers: A systematic review

Background Economic contribution by internal migrant workers, in particular the workers in Export Processing Zones (EPZ) in Sri Lanka, is well recognized, yet the social and health consequences are unknown. Objective To systematically review the health issues affecting female internal migrant workers in EPZ in Sri Lanka Methods A literature review was conducted through electronic databases and hand searches of grey literature. Studies eligible for inclusion were those reported health or social issues among females employed in an industry within EPZ from 1978 to 2012. Studies were selected using a defined checklist for their methodological quality and in relation to measurement of health status. Results Of the 550 studies identified, eight publications were included for the review. The respondents were relatively young and educated females, and the large majority have migrated predominantly from rural areas to work in garment factories located in urban centers. These studies described health issues related to nutrition, reproductive health, mental health, musculo-skeletal disorders and gender issues. The review identified high prevalence of nutritional deficiencies such as underweight and anaemia; risky sexual behavior; and psychological disorders among female factory workers. Migrant workers had higher prevalence of anaemia and psychological depression than their nonmigrant counterparts. As a positive effect, women experienced empowerment through gaining income and new knowledge. Conclusions Female migrant workers generally tend to exhibit some disadvantage due to health risks, and are more likely to be subject to ill-health than non-migrants. More rigorous research is needed to determine true health impacts within this population.

Migrant and non-migrant wage differentials: a quintile decomposition analysis for India

The objective of this paper is to quantify the wage gap between internal migrant and non-migrant workers in India. Using unit-level data from the National Sample Survey (NSS) for the years 1999–2000 and 2007–2008, we analysed the wage differential with Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition adjusted for sample selection bias. Further, we analysed the wage gap across the distribution using quantile decomposition analysis. The estimated results show that, on average, migrant workers earn higher wages than non-migrant workers and have higher returns to education in both rural and urban areas. However, migrant workers belonging to Scheduled Tribes (ST) and Scheduled Castes (SC), and female migrants, have a wage disadvantage compared to non-migrant workers with similar characteristics. Across the wage distribution, the wage decomposition shows, wages are lower for migrants than non-migrants at the lower end but higher at the higher end. The major part of this trend is explained by observable characteristics. The wage disadvantage at the lower end seems to be because of the over-representation of females among migrants in casual work. When the analysis was conducted only for regular male workers, it was found that migrants have a wage advantage across the wage distribution.

Quo Vadis? Chinese migrant workers at home and abroad

ABSTRACTThe mass movement of migrant workers from rural to urban destinations is a natural consequence of globalization. It has exerted a major influence on economic growth, and the social interaction and lives of the individuals involved. This review focuses on such rural–urban migration with the aim of identifying its impact on the social lives and class relations of the migrants. It will examine the arguments made by Howard French concerning migrant workers in sub-Saharan Africa and a series of accounts made by internal migrant workers in China by Lü Guoguang. We will also discuss the variable impact of such migrants on social stratification analysed by Li Qiang and the trajectory of ethnic minority populations under the Western Development strategy in China that is the focus of Ma Rong's work. The review will conclude by assessing the contemporary conditions and probable future prospects of millions of Chinese migrant workers, and what needs to be done to escape the ‘migrant dilemma'.

Diabetes-related metabolic risk factors in internal migrant workers in China: a national surveillance study

Little is known about the cardiometabolic health of internal migrant workers in China. We aimed to examine the prevalence of diabetes-related cardiometabolic risk factors in this large, but little-studied population. We did this national surveillance study within the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention's National Disease Surveillance Point System, which includes a nationally representative sample of 170 study sites in all 31 provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities in mainland China. We used a stratified multistage cluster sampling design to select a nationally representative sample of 48,704 Chinese internal migrant workers aged 18-59 years in 2012. We defined migrant workers as individuals whose residence at the time of the study differed from their permanent residence in the government household registration system. Medical history, information about lifestyle risk factors, and clinical measurements were collected from study participants at workplaces or local health centres by trained staff. Overnight fasting blood samples were collected in the morning and oral glucose tolerance tests were done in accordance with a standard protocol. All calculations were weighted to represent the overall Chinese migrant worker population aged 18-59 years by assigning each participant a weight coefficient. Weight coefficients were derived from the 2012 China population census data for migrant population according to the distributions of industry sector, age, and sex. Among Chinese migrant workers aged 18-59 years, the weighted prevalence estimates were 26·8% (95% CI 26·4-27·3) for overweight, 4·7% (4·5-5·0) for obesity, 29·4% (28·9-29·9) for central obesity, 30·5% (30·0-31·0) for prediabetes, 5·1% (4·9-5·3) for diabetes, 16·3% (15·9-16·7) for hypertension, 34·5% (34·0-35·0) for dyslipidaemia, and 18·6% (18·2-19·0) for metabolic syndrome. 9·0% (8·7-9·3) of Chinese migrant workers had none of the following cardiometabolic risk factors, including current cigarette smoking, low fruit and vegetable intake, low physical activity, obesity or central obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and dyslipidaemia, 26·7% (26·2-27·2) had one, 30·2% (29·7-30·7) had two, 19·6% (19·1-20·0) had three, 9·9% (9·6-10·3) had four, 3·7% (3·5-3·9) had five, 0·8% (0·8-0·9) had six, and 0·1% (0·1-0·1) had seven. The proportions of individuals with three or more risk factors were 44·6% (43·9-45·3) in men and 20·2% (19·6-20·9) in women. Most metabolic risk factors were significantly less prevalent in migrant workers than in the general population in China (all p<0·001), although in women, the proportion with central obesity was similar (p=0·50), and in men, the proportion with metabolic syndrome was similar (p=0·07), and overweight (p<0·0001), obesity (p=0·0008), and central obesity (p<0·0001) were more prevalent in male migrant workers. Compared with the general population in China, most cardiometabolic risk factors were less prevalent in migrant workers. However, overweight, obesity and central obesity were more prevalent in male migrant workers than among men in the general population. Cardiometabolic risk profiles for migrant workers are not optimal and effective national interventions that can reach this special population are needed. Chinese Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Health, and Ministry of Science and Technology.

Mental wellbeing amongst younger and older migrant workers in comparison to their urban counterparts in Guangzhou city, China: a cross-sectional study.

BackgroundThere has been a dramatic increase in internal migrant workers in China over recent decades, and there is a recent concern of poor mental health particularly amongst younger or “new generation” migrants who were born in 1980 or later.MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted in Guangzhou city between May and July in 2012. Mental wellbeing was measured using the World Health Organization Five-item Well-Being Index Scale and the 36 Item Short Form Health Survey mental health scale. Linear and logistic regression models were used to investigate the differences between migrant workers and their urban counterparts and between younger and older migrants.ResultsMigrant workers (n = 914) showed a small but significant advantage in mental wellbeing compared to their urban counterparts (n = 814). There was some evidence for age modification effect (p for interaction = 0.055-0.095); better mental wellbeing in migrants than urbanites were mainly seen in the older compared to the younger group, and the difference attenuated somewhat after controlling for income satisfaction. Older migrants showed better mental health than younger migrants. Factors that were independently associated with poor mental health in migrants included being male, longer working hours, and income dissatisfaction, whilst older age, factory job, high income, and increased use of social support resources were associated with reduced risk.ConclusionsEfforts to promote mental health amongst migrant workers may be usefully targeted on younger migrants and include measures aimed to improve working conditions, strengthen the social support network, and address age-specific needs.

Are migrants discriminated against in Chinese urban labour markets?

Abstract We use a nationally representative survey to investigate the incidence of discrimination against internal migrant workers in urban China, considering both migrants from rural areas (rural migrants) and those from other urban areas (urban migrants). We find that both rural and urban migrants are discriminated out of jobs with formal labour contracts. Results also suggest that urban migrants are compensated for working in the informal sector by earning higher wages. There is evidence however of wage discrimination against rural hukou status. A semi-parametric method suggests a larger discrimination against migrants in the upper half of the wage distribution. Discrimination against migrants seems not to decrease as their duration of stay in the urban labour market increases. JEL codes J7; J51; O15; N35

Health equity for internal migrant labourers in India: an ethical perspective.

In the developing countries, internal migration is a survival strategy for many labourers in search of a better livelihood and opportunities. It is inevitable that many of them will leave their home towns and villages in the coming years, and that the future will see an increase in the number of migrant labourers in developing countries such as India. Migrant workers face unique health problems and it is important for the health system to prepare itself to face these. In this context, the system will need to address certain key ethical issues. There is plenty of published literature on international migration and its ethical aspects.However, there is a scarcity of information on ethical issues relating to internal migration. This article examines these issues in the context of India. It addresses the issues of equity, non-discrimination,the provision of culturally competent care to migrants, allocation of scarce resources, and achieving a balance between benefits and risks for migrants. Our analysis should be considered while planning any healthcare intervention for internal migrant workers in all developing countries.

Chinese migrants’ work experience and city identification: Challenging the underclass thesis

Are internal migrant workers who have contributed so much to contemporary Chinese economic growth forming a distinct, impoverished underclass (Chan, 2010; Solinger, 2006) or are they slowly merging into the Chinese working class? In this article sociological theory is employed to develop the distinction between underclass and working class, including the conditions and criteria that enable these social categories to be distinguished theoretically and empirically. Drawing on a large range of survey data, including our own analysis of a recent Chinese migrant worker survey, we examine relevant aspects of work and city experience in order to assess the underclass thesis. In addition, we evaluate the argument that younger migrant workers are significantly different in work orientation and strategies for work-life improvement compared with their more experienced counterparts. We conclude that evidence for the underclass thesis is less compelling than an interpretation that views most migrant workers as transitioning into the working class. In addition, although younger workers are more intrinsically oriented than older migrants, both groups concur that labor law enforcement is critical for work-life improvement while simultaneously developing their own collective capacity to influence labor relations outcomes.

The relationship between attributional style and destructive responses to job dissatisfaction: an exploratory study of internal migrant workers in China

This study examines the relationship between attributional style and destructive responses to job dissatisfaction among internal migrant workers in mainland China. Contrary to previous studies conducted in the West, we found that internality of bad events was negatively related to destructive responses to job dissatisfaction. Stability and globality were positively related to destructive responses to job dissatisfaction. We suggest that the concept of interdependent self-construal may explain the unique positive meaning of internality of bad events among Chinese migrant workers. The practical significance of the findings is discussed.

Tourism mobilities, marriages and ‘mimicking’: some experiences of domestic migrant tourist workers in Sharm Elsheikh

This research explores the experiences of internal migrant workers to Sharm Elsheikh, Egypt, where tourism practices can be viewed as an exchange of mobilities and hospitalities – of domestic migrant workers and international and domestic tourists. Here, nearly all parties are engaged in mobilities; yet, many workers (and some tourists) get stuck in places of hospitality and tourism. It further takes a micro-based approach towards examining how working in the tourism industry is viewed and how some of these workers perceive international tourism affects their lives. Issues such as feelings, justifications, and experiences of working away from home in a city tourism resort have been looked at in a qualitative investigation through semi-structured interviews. The research has revealed a number of issues related to the different typologies of workers, the social benefits, and social costs (mimicking and identity, work-leisure nexus, marriage, and secret marriage). Indeed, the current situation of migrant workers in Sharm Elshiekh needs more attention from the Egyptian Tourism Authorities and Central and Local government.

Mental Health and Migration: Depression, Alcohol Abuse, and Access to Health Care Among Migrants in Central Asia

One-fifth of Kazakhstan's population is labor migrants working in poor conditions with limited legal rights. This paper examines self-rated health, mental health and access to health care among migrant workers. Using geo-mapping, a random sample of internal and external migrant market workers was selected in Almaty (N = 450). We used survey logistic regression adjusted for clustering of workers within stalls. Almost half of participants described their health as fair or poor and reported not seeing a doctor when needed, 6.2% had clinical depression and 8.7% met criteria for alcohol abuse. Female external migrants were at higher risk for poor health and underutilization of health services. High mobility was associated with depression among internal migrants and with alcohol abuse among female migrant workers. This study demonstrates the urgent need to address health and mental health needs and improve access to health care among labor migrants in Central Asia.

Many Chains to Break: The Multi‐dimensional Concept of Slave Labour in Brazil

AbstractThis article examines the concept of slave labour through two case studies from Brazil. One involves internal migrant workers and the other cross‐border migrant workers. There have been accusations of slave labour in both cases. I argue that slave labour is a multi‐dimensional concept and that cognate notions (eg forced and unfree labour) could also be reconceived as multi‐dimensional. Recent works have proposed that a continuum viewing labour relations as more or less free should replace dichotomies such as free vs unfree. I argue for taking this further to recognise, first, that workers may be more or less free in different ways, and second, that the resulting conditions of employment can be characterised as more or less degrading, also in different ways. This multi‐dimensional approach allows for a better understanding of the heterogeneity of apparently unfree labour relations and for greater recognition of the agency of workers labelled as slaves.

Does Powerlessness Explain Elevated HIV Risk Among Tajik Labor Migrants? An Ethnographic Study

To investigate the role of powerlessness in elevated HIV risk among labor migrants, we compared internal verses external male migrant workers from Tajikistan using minimally structured interviews and focused field observations. The sample included 30 male labor migrants who traveled to work in Regar, Tajikistan (internal labor migrants), and 30 who travelled to work in Moscow, Russia (external labor migrants). Though powerlessness did not appear to account for whether labor migrants engaged in more HIV risk behaviors, the harsh living and working conditions of external labor migration impacted how the migrants manifested these HIV risks by amplifying group masculine norms and behaviors. Progress in preventing HIV infection amid the difficult social conditions of labor migration is contingent upon adequate conceptualization of how such conditions impact HIV risk behaviors