Internal Focus Research Articles

Intervention for Better Knee Alignment during Jump Landing: Is There an Effect of Internally vs. Externally Focused Instructions?

Externally focused attention is known to induce superior results in the movement outcome, whereas focusing attention on the moving body (internal focus) causes conscious control and constrains action. The study investigated effects on knee trajectory and whole-body movement complexity when addressing knee alignment using externally (EF) vs. internally (IF) focused instructions. Young ski racers, n = 24 (12 male), performed landings with subsequent jumps to submaximal height. Movements were tracked and analyzed during the ground contact phase. Sets of jumps were executed without instruction (CON), followed by EF and IF instructions on knee alignment in a random order. Medial–lateral displacement of the knee in landing quantified task achievement, and whole-body principal component analysis was used to compute movement complexity. Knee alignment instructions led to a significantly lower medial knee displacement compared to CON (p = 0.001, ηp2 = 0.35). EF vs. IF did not reach significance. EF, as well as IF instructions increased the prominence of the first movement pattern (p = 0.01, ηp2 = 0.22) with a reduction of higher-order patterns (p = 0.002, W = 0.11), suggesting a strategy of freezing degrees of freedom. Both instructions addressing the movement form positively influenced knee displacement during landing, and both led to a freezing strategy, simplifying whole-body coordination.

Age and attentional focus instructions effects on postural and supra-postural tasks among older adults with mild cognitive impairments.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the age and attentional focus instruction effects on the postural and supra-postural tasks among older adults with mild cognitive impairments. Forty healthy adults (mean age of 48.01 ± 5.45years) and 40 older adults with mild cognitive impairments (mean age of 69.87 ± 4.28years) were selected as participants. They were randomly divided into eight groups receiving internal and external attentional focus instructions for postural and supra-postural tasks. The postural status was evaluated by measuring the COP sway velocity with the Master Balance System. The results showed that in both phases of acquisition and retention, the main effect of the attentional focus type was significant (P < 0.05). The group's postural control with external attentional instructions was better than the group's postural control with internal attentional instructions. Furthermore, the CI elderly gained benefit from the guidelines of attentional focus. Results showed that the task type was not significant in the acquisition phase. However, in the retention phase, the main effect of the attentional focus type was significant. The groups' postural function with the supra-postural task was better than the groups with the postural task. Furthermore, the older adults showed a better postural function in the supra-postural task than in the postural task. Our results showed that the ability to allocate resources of attention may decrease with CI. These findings suggest that considering the effect of the supra-postural tasks' manipulation on postural control, it is possible to improve balance by designing training programs for directing supra-postural tasks. The findings of the present study can be a guide for educators and therapists. They can increase the balance of the patients by considering the dysfunction and the type of attentional guidelines to prevent them from falling and performing a dual task.

Focus of Attention in Voice Training and Performance: Applications to the Voice Studio

In all of motor learning theory, focus of attention is certainly among the areas of research with the most relevance to singers. This article aims to guide and to provide strategies to teachers wishing to translate internal focus directives into external ones, when appropriate. Issues of posture, breath, vocal tract space, and tension are examined, along with ways to engage powers of imitation and imagination to activate automatic control processes.

Sliding Doors of Network Change: An Attention-Based Theory on The Evolution of Innovation Networks

How and why do companies change their interorganizational networks over time? Research has traditionally focused on structural characteristics of ties to explore this evolutionary process. More recently, the focus has shifted to deliberate choices of network actors to change ties or maintain existing ones. In particular, research has explained that these choices are influenced by actors’ innovative performance, which determines how network ties evolve over time. In this paper, we deepen the understanding of this issue; specifically, we develop an attention–based theoretical model to explore how managers first focus on the innovative performance and then decide to pursue change or stasis in their network. We explain that having an internal focus of attention (focus on company’s own performance) or an external one (focus on partners’ performance) leads to different patterns of network change. In both instances, having a below-expectations innovative performance leads to change the network, but the specific pattern depends on the focus of attention. We argue that attention also influences the change of company practices, in combination with network change; in particular, it determines if managers have a big enough attention span to change both the network and the practices and how they focus on specific practices.

The impact of external and internal focus of attention on visual dependence and EEG alpha oscillations during postural control

BackgroundThe ability to maintain upright posture requires successful integration of multiple sensory inputs (visual, vestibular, and somatosensory). When one or more sensory systems become unreliable, the postural control system must “down-weight” (or reduce the influence of) those senses and rely on other senses to maintain postural stability. As individuals age, their ability to successfully reweight sensory inputs diminishes, leading to increased fall risk. The present study investigates whether manipulating attentional focus can improve the ability to prioritize different sensory inputs for postural control.MethodsForty-two healthy adults stood on a balance board while wearing a virtual reality (VR) head-mounted display. The VR environment created a multisensory conflict amongst the different sensory signals as participants were tasked with maintaining postural stability on the balance board. Postural sway and scalp electroencephalography (EEG) were measured to assess visual weighting and cortical activity changes. Participants were randomized into groups that received different instructions on where to focus their attention during the balance task.ResultsFollowing the instructions to direct attention toward the movement of the board (external focus group) was associated with lower visual weighting and better balance performance than when not given any instructions on attentional focus (control group). Following the instructions to direct attention towards movement of the feet (internal focus group) did not lead to any changes in visual weighting or balance performance. Both external and internal focus groups exhibited increased EEG alpha power (8–13 Hz) activity over the occipital cortex as compared to the control group.ConclusionsCurrent results suggest that directing one’s attention externally, away from one’s body, may optimize sensory integration for postural control when visual inputs are incongruent with somatosensory and vestibular inputs. Current findings may be helpful for clinicians and researchers in developing strategies to improve sensorimotor mechanisms for balance.

External focus facilitates cognitive stability and promotes motor performance of an interceptive task in children

ABSTRACT Recent evidence suggests that one of the benefits of external focus is facilitating task focus. To this extent, an external focus might influence cognitive function. To help elucidate the underlying mechanisms of attentional focus instructions, the aim of this study was to examine the influence of attentional focus instructions on cognitive stability and task focus, as indicated by the number of eye blinks, during an interceptive timing task with children who are at a crucial stage of motor coordination development. Twenty-four children (M age = 10.4 ± 0.9 years) performed a forehand drag shot with a floorball stick to hit a tennis ball at a target in each of three different attentional focus conditions: external focus “focus on the blade of the stick”, internal focus “focus on their hands”, and control (no focus instructions). A mobile eye tracker was used to record the number of eye blinks from the moment that the tennis ball was released by an experimenter from the top of a boccia ramp to the moment of the initial movement of the floorball stick. Results showed that the accuracy of hits was significantly better in the external focus relative to the internal focus condition. Also, the number of eye blinks was significantly lower in the external focus relative to the internal focus and control conditions. Findings suggest that improved cognitive stability and task focus may underlie the improved performance associated with an external focus in a visually demanding motor task in children.

Examining the Mechanisms of Internal and External Focus of Attention With Donders’ Subtractive Method

The goal of the current study was to measure the processing demands on the stages of information processing with internal and external foci of attention. Participants completed simple and two-choice reaction time tasks with internal and external foci of attention. Donders' subtraction method was used to isolate the cumulative duration of stages unique to simple and choice reaction time tasks. Mean reaction time was comparable with internal and external foci of attention in simple and two-choice reaction time tasks. These results suggest that processing demands were comparable with internal and external foci of attention. We hypothesize that there was not a processing advantage for an external focus in simple reaction time because the required movements had low movement complexity.

Effects of attention focus instructions on amateur piano performance

Detriments to performance under pressure are common in many performance settings, from public speaking to skilled sports or music performances. In the last few decades, sports scientists have suggested that the quality and accuracy of movements can depend on what the performer attends to while executing the action, with an external focus of attention directed at the effects of the movement on the environment resulting in better performance than an internal focus, where attention is directed at the performer’s own body movements. Here we investigated the effects of attention focus instruction on the accuracy of piano performance. Amateur pianists were asked to practice a set piano piece for 7 days and then perform it to the experimenter under different performance instructions (no instruction, internal focus, external focus). An external focus of attention resulted in more accurate performance compared to an internal focus instruction, as evaluated by the difference in the number of note pitch errors and note corrections between the two conditions. Importantly, the advantage of an external over internal focus did not depend on pianistic expertise in our sample. Our research supports the idea that an external attention focus can improve music performance and should be considered in music teaching practice.

An external focusing strategy was beneficial in experienced children but not in novices: The effect of external focus, internal focus, and holistic attention strategies

External focus (attention directed to an intended effect) has been shown to improve motor performance compared to internal focus (attention directed to body movements). Recently, holistic attention (attention directed to the overall feeling) has been discussed as an effective alternative. We hypothesized that a less specific cue (e.g. holistic attention) may be more effective than an external focus in experienced individuals. Therefore, the present study examined the effect of external focus, internal focus, and holistic attention on 14 experienced children-athletes ( Mage, 14.35 ± 1.98 years; Mheight, 171.28 ± 9.53 cm; Mweight, 58.28 ± 10.28 kg) and 14 novice children ( Mage, 14.21 ± 1.92 years; Mheight, 170.92 ± 12.40 cm; Mweight, 62.14 ± 15.62 kg). Participants completed a 16-meter front crawl swimming task with assigned instructions for three trials per condition. The results showed main effects of skill level ( p &lt; 0.001), condition ( p = 0.006), and the skill level/condition interaction ( p = 0.003). Post hoc tests revealed that external focus was superior to internal focus ( p &lt; 0.001), with no difference between holistic attention and internal focus ( p = 0.158) or holistic attention and external focus ( p = 0.05) in the experienced athletes, while none of the conditions were different in novices. The benefits of attentional focus may be influenced by the level of experience.

Practice-Not Task Difficulty-Mediated the Focus of Attention Effect on a Speed-Accuracy Tradeoff Task.

External focus (attention to the movement effect) has been found effective in motor performance and learning. However, while some investigators have suggested that the effect of attentional focus varies with task difficulty, others reported external focus benefits regardless of difficulty. We hypothesized that attentional focus effects would vary with practice, due to changes in the individual's processing efficiency. We had three 20-person participant groups (external focus instructions, internal focus instructions, control) practice three difficulty levels of a Fitts reciprocal tapping task over two days. Participants in the external/internal focus groups were instructed to "mentally focus on moving the pen/your hand as fast and accurately as possible," while control participants were instructed to "mentally focus only on doing your best to achieve the task goal." We then analyzed the effect of attentional focus by task difficulty at the initial performance (the beginning of the practice) and after learning (the retention/transfer phase), using movement time (MT) and number of error taps (Err) as performance measures. The internal focus group made more errors than the control group only at the retention/transfer phase. We found no error differences between the external and internal focus groups, and there were no MT differences between any groups. Our primary hypothesis about the differential effect of attentional focus by practice was supported. The attentional focus effect on Err differed in the retention/transfer phase from the immediate phase, suggesting that practice mediated the attentional focus effect. We discuss how information theory may supplement understanding of attentional focus interventions in motor skill acquisition.

Human Rights and Constitutionality Issues of Blasphemy Law in Indonesia

This article analyzes human rights and constitutionality issues in the Indonesian Blasphemy Law. It contributes urgently to constitutional studies since constitutionalism requires respect for human rights and democracy obliges to uphold the supremacy of the constitution. This article was written as the results of research through the desk-study using descriptive-qualitative approach. Data were collected through document study and Internal Focus Group Discussion. Indonesia's blasphemy laws inherently violate human rights and are prone to politicization which places religious minorities in vulnerability, while the main legal provisions that criminalize blasphemy have been tested for their constitutionality dimensions by the Constitutional Court. However, the constitutionality issue remains, partly because the Constitutional Court affirmed a religious constitution whereas the Republic of Indonesia is a Pancasila based state. In addition, the Constitutional Court ignores human rights, particularly the right to freedom of religion/belief as guaranteed by the constitution.

Effect of Attentional Focus on Sprint Performance: A Meta-Analysis.

Sprinting is often seen in a variety of sports. Focusing one’s attention externally before sprinting has been demonstrated to boost sprint performance. The present study aimed to systematically review previous findings on the impact of external focus (EF), in comparison to internal focus (IF), on sprint performance. A literature search was conducted in five electronic databases (APA PsycINFO, PubMed, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science). A random-effects model was used to pool Hedge’s g with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). The meta-analysis included six studies with a total of 10 effect sizes and 166 participants. In general, the EF condition outperformed the IF condition in sprint performance (g = 0.279, 95% CI [0.088, 0.470], p = 0.004). The subgroup analysis, which should be viewed with caution, suggested that the benefits associated with the EF strategy were significant in low-skill sprinters (g = 0.337, 95% CI [0.032, 0.642], p = 0.030) but not significant in high-skill sprinters (g = 0.246, 95% CI [−0.042, 0.533], p = 0.094), although no significant difference was seen between these subgroups (p = 0.670). The reported gain in sprint performance due to attentional focus has practical implications for coaches and athletes, as making tiny adjustments in verbal instructions can lead to significant behavioral effects of great importance in competitive sports.

Key factors in the reform of competence-based science teaching in Spain. A case study with secondary school teachers involved in a training programme focusing on context-based approach

ABSTRACT Background Numerous investigations have highlighted the importance of examining teachers’ responses to the curricular reforms in science teaching proposed by the educational authorities. Science teachers’ responses are shaped by their perceptions of the new measures’ intentions and their level of involvement. Purpose This study analyses the evolution of the teachers´ beliefs and opinions to externally driven curriculum reform in Spain focused on developing key competences. Sample Four secondary science teachers participated in a training programme in which a context-based approach to teaching scientific competences was implemented. Design and methods The data analysis applied a scheme that differentiates the personal, internal and external focus of teachers’ work. It also introduced the qualifier concept, whether their responses were seen as facilitating (F) or obstacles (O) the development of competence-based science education. The data was obtained from different settings: two individual interviews with each teacher and a focus group carried out with the four teachers Results The teachers' perceptions cover many aspects (20), which have all been categorized into the 27 factors included in the scheme used. The teachers’ perceptions were mainly on the personal focus at all training programme settings. However, their responses also reflected factors related to the internal and external focuses, though to a lesser extent. Conclusion The study´s findings show the influence of reflection on the teachers’ observations and impressions, helping them elicit many factors according to Ryder´s proposal. As for the qualifiers expressed by the teachers, the evaluations depended on the teacher profile and the settings used. These considerations highlight the influence of training and experiential knowledge on professional development.

Dominance of Attention Focus and Its Electroencephalogram Activity in Standing Postural Control in Healthy Young Adults.

Attention focus changes performance, and external focus (EF) improves performance compared to internal focus (IF). However, recently, the dominance of attention focus, rather than the effectiveness of unilateral EF, has been examined. Although the positive effects of EF on standing postural control have been reported, the dominance of attention focus has not yet been examined. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the dominance of attention focus and its neural mechanism in standing postural control using electroencephalography (EEG). A standing postural control task under IF and EF conditions was performed on healthy young men. Gravity center sway and cortical activity simultaneously using a stabilometer and an EEG were measured. Participants were classified into IF-dominant and EF-dominant groups according to their index of postural stability. The EEG was analyzed, and cortical activity in the theta-wave band was compared between the IF-dominant and EF-dominant groups. Significant neural activity was observed in the left parietal lobe of the IF-dominant group in the IF condition, and in the left frontal lobe of the EF-dominant group in the EF condition (p < 0.05). Differences in EEG activity between IF-dominant and EF-dominant groups, in standing postural control, were detected. This contributes to the development of training methods that consider attentional focus dominance in postural control.

A meta-analysis on immediate effects of attentional focus on motor tasks performance

ABSTRACT Directing the attentional focus towards intended movement effects could enhance individual performance. This meta-analysis examines the immediate effects of an instructed external (proximal/distal) and internal attentional focus on an experimental group and a control group on their performance. A systematic review was done following the PRISMA guidelines. A total of 3833 reports were scanned. Of these, 83 were included in the systematic review, and 61 studies were included into the meta-analysis. The meta-analysis was additionally split into the original categories, which included the instructions as mentioned in the paper, and the adapted classifications, for which the instructions were reclassified based on the definition by [Wulf, G. (2013). Attentional focus and motor learning: A review of 15 years. International Review of sport and Exercise psychology, 6(1), 77–104. doii:10.1080/1750984X.2012.723728 and McNevin, N. H., Shea, C. H., & Wulf, G. (2003). Increasing the distance of an external focus of attention enhances learning. Psychological Research, 67(1), 22–29. doii:10.1007/s00426-002-0093-6]. In line with the constrained-action hypothesis, an external attentional focus instruction enhanced the immediate performance compared to an internal attentional focus instruction (SMDadapted = 0.24) and the control group (SMDadapted SMD = 0.31). Also, consistent with the constrained-action hypothesis, distal external attentional focus instructions showed performance-enhancing effects compared to proximal external attentional focus instructions (SMDadapted = 0.23). However, most comparisons showed moderate to substantial heterogeneity and wide prediction intervals. Therefore, the results cannot be generalized for all tasks and skill levels.

Female Athletes Exhibit Greater Trial-to-Trial Coordination Variability When Provided with Instructions Promoting an External Focus

The purpose of this study was to examine how instructions promoting different attentional foci influence joint coordination patterns and trial-to-trial coordination variability during landing. Sixteen females performed drop landings with their typical technique (baseline) and after receiving instructions promoting an internal focus and an external focus. The coordination patterns, and trial-to-trial coordination variability, of the sagittal plane hip-knee, hip-ankle, and knee-ankle angle pairings were compared across conditions. While there was no difference in the joint coordination patterns among the conditions, subjects exhibited greater hip-ankle and knee-ankle trial-to-trial coordination variability for the external focus condition, vs. the baseline and internal focus conditions, which may help to explain the improved motor learning outcomes for athletes who train with an external focus.

Instructions for External Focus of Attention Improved Taekwondo Kicking Performance Only Among Less Skilled Youth.

External focus of attention (EFA) studies among children have yielded more equivocal results than have those among adults. Some investigators have found an internal focus of attention (IFA) advantage in children and have explained their results by children’s generally lower skill levels, compared to adults. According to the constrained action hypothesis, children’s lower skill levels are not yet associated with over-learned automatic movement patterns, so their motor performance is not disrupted by IFA instructions. In this study, our objective was to examine a possible interaction effect between children’s skill levels and their exposure to either IFA or EFA instructions on motor performance. Our participants were 40 10–15-year-old taekwondo competitors of higher and lower skill levels (based on both the participant’s experience and their test performance) who engaged in a taekwondo kicking movement before and after either IFA or EFA instructions. We found improved kicking performance with EFA versus IFA instructions only among less versus more skilled participants.

Pay attention! The influence of coach-, content-, and player-related factors on focus of attention statements during tennis training

ABSTRACT It is well established that adopting an external focus of attention (EF) enhances motor learning when contrasted to an internal focus (IF) or a neutral condition. Despite consistent evidence for this performance-enhancing effect of an EF, recent studies show that coaches predominantly induce an IF in the communication with athletes. It remains, however, unknown whether and to what degree coach-, content- or player-related factors have an impact on the focus of attention during youth tennis training. Therefore, we recorded all statements from 10 tennis coaches during six training sessions with a total of 87 youth athletes aged 18 years or younger. All statements were categorized according to the focus they induced (IF, EF, neutral, best place to hit the ball, mix, no focus) and the form of communication (instruction, feedback). Of the relevant statements (n = 3049), 45.1% promoted an EF, whereas 33.1% induced an IF. Evaluation of coaches-, player- and content-specific features (education, age of coach/player, training content, skill level) showed that more statements with an IF were given when training beginners. The data also show more statements with an EF for instructions (59.0%) compared to feedback (43.0%). Our results contrast with other sports where instructions with an IF predominate. Thus, instrumented sports with external targets (e.g. tennis) might be better suited for inducing an EF. The data also show that coaches are more likely to use IF when communicating with beginners. Consequently, an EF should not be induced in every possible situation, even if this is often communicated so far. Highlights This study shows for the first time that statements that induce an external focus of attention predominate in tennis. This result contrasts with results from other sports and suggests that racquet sports may be better suited for inducing an external attentional focus. This study shows that coaches adapt their communication to the performance level of their athletes. The use of an external focus of attentions predominates when working with tennis players. However, the likelihood of inducing an EF is even higher when working with skilled tennis players when compared to beginners. The way of communication (feedback vs. instruction) influences how coaches phrase their statements to athletes. The analysis revealed that coaches use more statements with an external focus of attentions for instructions compared to feedback.

A Retrospective Analysis of Three Focused Attention Meditation Techniques: Mantra, Breath, and External-Point Meditation.

ObjectiveThe goal of this study is to compare the effectiveness of three different meditation techniques (two internal focus techniques and one external focus technique) using a low-cost portable electroencephalography (EEG) device, namely, MUSE, for an objective comparison.MethodsThis is an IRB-approved retrospective study. All participants in the study were healthy adults. Each study participant (n = 34) was instructed to participate in three meditation sessions: mantra (internal), breath (internal), and external point. The MUSE brain-sensing headband (EEG) was used to document the “total time spent in the calm state” and the “total time spent in the calm or neutral state” (outcomes) in each three-minute session to conduct separate analyses for the meditation type. Separate generalized linear models (GLM) with unstructured covariance structures were used to examine the association between each outcome and the explanatory variable (meditation type). For all models, if there was a significant association between the outcome and the explanatory variable, pairwise comparisons were carried out using the Tukey-Kramer correction.ResultsThe median time (in seconds) spent in the calm state while practicing mantra meditation was 131.5 (IQR: 94-168), while practicing breath meditation was 150 (IQR: 113-164), and while practicing external-point meditation was 100 (IQR: 62-126). Upon analysis, there was a significant association between the meditation type and the time spent in the calm state (p-value = 0.0006).ConclusionThis is the first study comparing “internal” versus “external” meditation techniques using an objective measure. Our study shows the breath and mantra technique as superior to the external-point technique as regards time spent in the calm state. Additional research is needed using a combination of “EEG” and patient-reported surveys to compare various meditative practices. The findings from this study can help incorporate specific meditation practices in future mindfulness-based studies that are focused on healthcare settings and on impacting clinical outcomes, such as survival or disease outcomes.

Utilising an internal focus of attention during preparation and an external focus during execution may facilitate motor learning

ABSTRACT Research with athletes and coaches has found that attentional focus strategies are more complex than using an internal or external focus exclusively. Recently Becker et al. [2020, March 1. The effects of attentional focus in the preparation and execution of a standing long jump. Psychological Research, 84(2), 285–291] found that switching attentional focus from internal in movement preparation to external during movement execution provided a benefit over internal focus and control conditions. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of attentional switching on motor skill acquisition. 79 participants were randomly divided into an internal (INT), external (EXT), or switching group (IES). Individuals performed 80 acquisition trials of a golf chipping task with their prescribed attentional focus during preparation and execution. 24-hours later 10-trial retention and transfer tests were performed. The primary analysis revealed significant improvement during acquisition (p < .001) but no significant differences between attentional focus groups during acquisition, retention, or transfer. A secondary analysis was performed with individuals low in attentional focus adherence removed (<60%). Groups significantly improved during acquisition (p < .001). For retention IES significantly outperformed INT (p < .05). These results suggest that the detrimental effects of an internal focus are only found during skill execution and not movement preparation. It is possible for learners to benefit from both an internal and external focus so long as the cues are provided during the correct phase of skill performance. Highlights Attentional focus is much more complex than using either an internal or external focus of attention. This study investigated the effects of switching attention during skill acquisition from an internal to external focus. A preliminary analysis revealed no significant differences between attentional focus groups of internal, external, or switching. One reason for this finding was the poor adherence to the prescribed focus cue. A secondary analysis where low adherence individuals were removed revealed a significant difference between the switching group and the internal focus group during retention. These finding suggest that the detrimental effects associated with an internal focus of attention are exclusive to using the focus during task execution. It is possible that an internal focus can still facilitate learning so long as an external focus is used during movement execution.