Expectancy For Internal Control Research Articles

Early Home-Life Antecedents of Children's Locus of Control.

Children’s external locus of control has been linked to a wide variety of negative academic achievement, personality, and social adjustment outcomes. The purpose of this study was to discover which features of early home environment may facilitate the development of external as opposed to internal control expectancies in children. We use an exposome approach to analyze data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) cohort study, a longitudinal study starting in pregnancy in England in 1990–1992. Details of parents and their study children were collected prospectively, and children’s locus of control was assessed at age 8 using an abbreviated form of the most frequently used measure of children’s locus of control (Nowicki-Strickland Internal External locus of control scale). A series of stepwise logistic regression analyses were undertaken to determine the strongest independent associations. The final model (n = 4,075 children) comprised 13 variables – those with the strongest associations with the child becoming externally oriented were two that were positive indicators of the mother being distracted (TV on almost the whole time, and a consideration that pets should be treated as members of the family), three that were indicators of protective (negative) effects of interaction between mother and child (child was breast fed, mother read stories to the child, mother cuddled the baby when he/she woke at night), and two divergent indicators of maternal health behavior (more frequent cleaning of the child’s hands before a meal which was associated with a heightened risk of become external, and providing a healthy-type of diet, which was associated with a reduced risk of becoming external). The findings suggest that inadequate early maternal interaction with the child is associated with an increased risk of the child being externally oriented by the age of 8.

Family correlates of daughter's and son's locus of control expectancies during childhood

ABSTRACTChildren who expect they can bring about good outcomes and avoid bad outcomes tend to experience more personal successes. Little is known about factors that contribute to these ‘control expectancies’. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether children's internal control expectancies occur in the context of parents’ internal control expectancies, low family strain, and high family cohesiveness and whether these factors are more strongly related to daughters’ than sons’ control expectancies. A community sample of 85 children aged 9–11 years and their parents (85 mothers; 63 fathers) completed rating scales. Fathers’ more internal control expectancies and mothers’ reports of fewer family strains were associated with daughters’ but not sons’ greater internal control expectancies, and greater family cohesiveness was related to both daughters’ and sons’ internal control orientations. These findings suggest that family factors may contribute to children's, particularly daughters’, development of internal control expectancies.

Development of a cultural self-efficacy scale for adolescents (CSES-A)

Abstract We developed a cultural self-efficacy scale for adolescents (CSES-A) and tested its psychometric properties using both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Cultural self-efficacy (CSE) was defined as person's perception of his/her own capability to function effectively in situations characterized by cultural diversity. On the basis of Bandura's guideline for the development of a domain-specific self-efficacy measure, we tailored 50 items after reviewing literature about cultural competence, adolescents’ school-problems and social self-efficacy scales developed in previous studies in intercultural contexts. After pre-testing and analyzing psychometric properties of the scale, we selected 33 items. Eight hundred sixty-eight adolescents with five different cultural origins completed a set of questionnaires, including the CSES-A, internal control expectancies, general self-efficacy, academic expectancies, number of people from diverse cultures they keep in touch with, acculturation attitudes, perceived enrichment of other cultures, acculturation stress and demographic data. An EFA with MPLUS 2.14 highlighted a five-factor solution with 25 items that was supported by a subsequent CFA. The five factors were: self-efficacy in mixing satisfactorily with other cultures, in understanding different ways of life, in processing information from other cultures, in coping with loneliness and in learning and understanding other languages. The pattern of correlation with internal control expectancies, general self-efficacy and cultural variables supported the validity of the scale. CSES-A may be useful for future research on multicultural contexts, in which self-efficacy in cultural adaptation could be a fundamental variable.

NONVERBAL MATERNAL WARMTH AND CHILDREN'S LOCUS OF CONTROL OF REINFORCEMENT

Previous research on antecedents of generalized control expectancies has indicated that parents of children with internal control expectancies express more warmth than parents of children with external control expectancies. However, few studies have utilized observational methodologies and no study has identified a specific mechanism by which parental warmth may contribute to differences in children's control expectancies. In addition, no study has examined whether individual differences in children's behavior are associated with differences in parental warmth. We tested the hypothesis that mothers of internally and externally controlled children would differ in their expression of nonverbal behavioral indicators of warmth. To test the hypothesis, the interactions of 50 second-grade children and their mothers were videotaped. Compared to mothers of externally controlled children, mothers of internally controlled children displayed more smiles, exhibited more positive touches (hugs, pats, rubs), and gazed for longer periods of time toward their child. Analyses of the children's behavior revealed that internally controlled children displayed more smiles and engaged in less off-task behavior than externally controlled children. Results of the current study further clarify the nature of the association between parental warmth and children's generalized control expectancies and suggest nonverbal behavior as a possible mechanism.

Origins of generalized control expectancies: reported child stress and observed maternal control and warmth.

The relations among reported stressful events, maternal control and warmth, and children's locus of control of reinforcement were investigated. Fifty-five 2nd-grade. U.S. children completed the Children's Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External Locus of Control Scale, and their mothers completed a modified form of Coddington's Life Events Scale for their child. Mother and child also were videotaped while they worked together on three puzzles. The results indicated that, compared with children with external control expectancies, children with internal control expectancies had experienced less stress in their lives. Furthermore, when observed interacting with their children, mothers of children with internal control expectancies were rated as displaying less control and more warmth than mothers of children with external control expectancies. The findings generally are consistent with predictions based on Rotter's social learning theory for the development of individual differences in generalized control expectancies.

An Observational Study of Antecedents of Locus of Control of Reinforcement

Locus of control of reinforcement refers to a generalised problem-solving expectancy reflecting the degree to which individuals perceive reinforcements as contingent on their own behaviour (internal control) or on some external force such as luck, chance, or fate (external control). The present study tested predictions based on Rotter's social learning theory that mothers of children with internal control expectancies would provide more contingent reinforcement, support, and encouragement of independence than mothers of children with external control expectancies. The interaction of 51 children and their mothers was video-taped while they attempted puzzle-solving tasks of two difficulty levels. No analyses were significant for the easy level task. In contrast, the difficult task produced several significant findings. Mothers of boys with internal control expectancies provided more contingent support in response to their sons' difficulties and were less likely to respond to their son's difficulties by performing the task for their sons or by watching them struggle. Surprisingly, mothers of girls with internal control expectancies were more likely than mothers of girls with external control expectancies to ignore their daughters' accomplishments and difficulties. Thus, the results provided partial support for predictions derived from Rotter's social learning theory for the development of generalised control expectancies.

An Observational Study of Antecedents of Locus of Control of Reinforcement

Locus of control of reinforcement refers to a generalised problem-solving expectancy reflecting the degree to which individuals perceive reinforcem ents as contingent on their own behaviour (internal control) or on some external force such as luck, chance, or fate (external control). The present study tested predictions based on Rotter's social learning theory that m others of children with internal control expectancies would provide more contingent reinforcement, support, and encouragement of independence than mothers of children with external control expectancies. The interaction of 51 children and their m others was video-taped while they attempted puzzle-solving tasks of two difficulty levels. No analyses were significant for the easy level task. In contrast, the difficult task produced several significant findings. M others of boys with internal control expectancies provided more contingent support in response to their sons' difficulties and were less likely to respond to their son's difficulties by performing the task for their sons or by watching them struggle. Surprisingly, mothers of girls with internal control expectancies were more likely than mothers of girls with external control expectancies to ignore their daughters' accomplishments and difficulties. Thus, the results provided partial support for predictions derived from Rotter's social learning theory for the development of generalised control expectancies.

Determinants of adherence to medical regimens by hypertensive patients.

This study employed multivariate analyses and structural modeling procedures to examine a model for the determinants of adherence to medical regimens. Fifty adult hypertensive patients at a health maintenance organization completed questionnaires and participated in home interviews over a 10-week period. Knowledge of medical regimens, information communication between the patient and the medical professionals, satisfaction with health-care providers, health locus of control, social support, and treatment disruption to life-style were assessed. Adherence was assessed through self-report and behavioral (i.e., pill-count ratio, percentage of kept medical appointments) indices. Finally, repeated blood-pressure measurements were obtained. Structural modeling procedures revealed that greater expectancy for internal control over health and hypertension, greater knowledge of the treatment regimen, and stronger social support were significant determinants of adherence; in turn, higher levels of adherence facilitated blood-pressure reduction.

Locus of Control Specific to Pregnancy

A woman's control expectancies for the labor and delivery experience will affect her satisfaction with the experience. Careful assessment by the nurse will identify the woman as having I Control, P Control, or C control expectancies. Internal control expectancies are not inherently preferable: Rotter states that the " early hypothesis that locus of control would have a curvilinear relationship to adjustment has not been born out." Thus, the narrow approach that encourages the development of internal control beliefs without first assessing the woman's internal, powerful others, and chance control attitudes should be avoided. Only after the childbirth expectancies have been assessed can the nurse provide the support to encourage realistic control expectancies.

Positive adjustment and involvement during aging and expectancy for internal control.

Positive adjustment and involvement during aging and expectancy for internal control.