Internal Constituents Research Articles

Observability-based sensor selection in fish ponds: Application to pond aquaculture in Indonesia

Water quality plays an important role in aquaculture since it affects the growth, survival, and production of aquaculture species. Consequently, measurement devices are needed to monitor water quality. However, this requires significant capital and extensive knowledge of the farmers, especially for smallholder farmers in developing tropical countries like Indonesia. As a cheaper alternative to using only hardware sensors, soft(ware) sensors may be used, as well. However, before designing feasible soft sensors, a so-called (theoretical) observability analysis needs to be done, where observability is a measure of how well internal states of a system can be inferred from measured system inputs and outputs. The aim of this study was to investigate the selection of sensors, such that a full reconstruction of the internal pond constituents, in tropical fish ponds, from the selected external sensor outputs can be realized at any time. A system theoretical observability analysis of a published antecedent dynamic model, describing the complex interactions between the pond constituents (states), was conducted to determine the minimum set of sensors that makes the pond system fully observable, thus in principle allowing a full reconstruction of all states at any time. Using only a DO sensor does not suffice. The minimum set of sensors that guarantees full observability of the pond system were two during the day and three during the night. The observability analysis showed that 11 possible combinations of two sensors provide a fully observable system during the day. In contrast, only one combination of sensors, that is CO2, NO3 and phosphorus, guarantees a fully observable system during day and night. Observability analysis is crucial for understanding the systems’ behaviour and sensor selection, and supports the design of reliable soft sensors for better control and management of fish ponds.

Detection of fabricated eggs using Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy coupled with multivariate classification techniques

Fabricated eggs can lead to many severe human health problems due to the consumption of the harmful chemicals used to make them. Therefore, developing technology for detecting fabricated eggs is of high priority in terms of food safety. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy is widely used for non-destructive detection applications for its capacity to rapidly assess targets via optical properties. In this study, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and principal component analysis (PCA) were performed to interpret FT-IR spectral data related to the chemical composition of fabricated eggs. As a result, particular wavenumbers were observed that were highly sensitive to the external (eggshell) and internal (albumen and yolk) constituents of fabricated and real chickens eggs. Based on the spectral interpretation, multivariate models using partial least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), partial least-squares regression (PLSR), support vector machine (SVM), and support vector regression (SVR) were built to detect the constituents of fabricated eggs. The PLS-DA and SVM models classified fabricated eggshells and fabricated albumen with 100% accuracy. Moreover, the PLSR and SVR predictive values exhibited coefficients of determination (Rp2) of 0.99. Hence, this study demonstrates that FT-IR spectroscopy combined with multivariate models can be potentially used as an efficient method to detect both surface and internal constituents of fabricated eggs.

Ex vivo platelet morphology assessment of chronic myeloid leukemia patients before and after Imatinib treatment.

Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) is a myeloproliferative disease and the first line treatment is through the administration of Imatinib, a first generation tyrosine kinase inhibitor. Thrombocytosis and bleeding irregularities are common in CML, however, the morphological variations in CML patients' platelets are not well documented. In this study, ex vivo platelet morphology of control participants, as well as CML patients were assessed before and after Imatinib treatment. The topographical and structural morphology of platelets were determined via scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Qualitative data of SEM and TEM revealed that CML patient's platelets were prone to aggregation and coagulation at time of diagnosis; the samples that were not aggregated at time of diagnosis showed typical discoid shaped platelets, which was comparable to control participants' platelets. TEM results of CML patients' platelets at diagnosis showed that internal granular constituents including dense bodies were decreased in comparison to control participants. In all CML patients, platelets appeared activated after 6months of treatment with Imatinib with membrane structure abnormalities and constituent variations. Research to date has primarily focused on the effects of CML on leukocyte populations, however, the results of the current study implicate the impact of CML pathogenesis on platelets, seemingly as a result of alterations in normal hematopoiesis. In addition, the impact of Imatinib treatment on platelet morphology was also established, indicating an increase in platelet activation. Recognizing and understanding the impact of CML disease progression on platelets is of importance to aid improved patient treatment. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: In the study, results from SEM and TEM indicated that CML patient's platelets were prone to aggregation at time of diagnosis, and activation after Imatnib treatment. Platelet samples that did not aggregate had decreased internal granular constituents.

Imagined Libya: geopolitics of the margins

Whether referring to the artificiality of its (post-)colonial construction or to the fragmentation of its sovereignty since 2011, the weakness of Libya’s statehood is a recurrent theme in policy and scholarly discourses. Scholars of history and international politics have expanded the framework to apprehend the processes of state (de/)formation underpinning Libya’s fragilities beyond the problematic “failed state” paradigm to accommodate longue-durée and multi-scalar perspectives. Building on these advances, yet noting the need for a more consistent use of social constructivist lenses, the article adopts the perspective of critical geopolitics to explore the spatial discourses and imaginaries, both domestic and imported, that across history have shaped “Libya”, as well as its internal constituents and its external environment, through processes of identification, othering and belonging. Given the diversity of uses – and abuses – connoting geopolitics and its critical variants, the first section of the article clarifies the meaning, relevance and methodology of the critical geopolitics approach herein employed. It is argued that Libya sits at the intersection of rival geopolitical imaginaries and competing spheres of influence that overlap and collide here. The subsequent sections analyze geopolitical discourses from different sources to offer a review of some important spatial imaginaries that have contributed to representing, constituting and apprehending Libya as a subject and an object of international politics: ancient geography’s environmentalism; Italy’s imperial colonialism; Gaddafi’s pan-Arabism and, later, pan-Africanism; and Turkey’s pan-Ottomanism.Before modern colonisation, the imaginary of (today’s) Libyan territory was long apprehended through the dichotomy between urban (hadari) and rural (badawi) spaces, with the political and normative centre of gravitation oscillating from the former (during the Arab and later Ottoman hegemony) to the latter (during the rise of the Sanussi order). During the Italian colonisation, Libya was subsumed in Italy’s Mediterranean projections, whether as a necessary “fourth shore” to Italy’s expansion in its “own” Lebensraum, or as a bridge welding Europe and Africa within a unitary geopolitical entity called Eurafrica. Gaddafi’s pan-Arabism and pan-Africanism combined short-term political opportunism with a more ambitious attempt to challenge (neo-)colonial geopolitical imaginaries about the country’s identity and belonging, and its related security priorities. Yet they both contributed to the abusive manipulation of domestic ethnic cleavages, the weaponization of (the research into) the country’s history, and the progressive de-legitimation of the regime. Today, Libya has acquired a prominent role in Turkey’s geopolitical imaginary. After more than a century of substantial disregard, the rise of a pan-Ottoman geopolitical repertoire in Turkey and the nationalistic emphasis on the redeeming of the vatan (homeland) provide the key for interpreting Turkey’s resurrecting interest in Libya, and the justification of its military intervention vis-à-vis Ankara’s domestic audiences. The exploration of these prominent geopolitical imaginaries on, by and about Libya highlights the tensions, intersections, and divergences underpinning different interpretations of the same territory. The enduring legacy of competing geopolitical imaginaries points to a plausible constitutive factor laying at the root of the polarisations and conflict dynamics that endanger the stability and survival of the Libyan state. Unearthing the competing geopolitical imaginaries on Libya can thus help illuminate the divergent approaches of the international actors intervening in the country, and those of their Libyan proxies struggling for recognition, be they Turkey’s allies, or Libya’s armed actors posturing as Europe’s gatekeepers in the contemporary iterations of the ambivalent geopolitical imaginary of Eurafrica. A critical geopolitics approach thus helps challenge the obsolete yet widespread view of Libya’s marginality in the international system, by unsettling reified spatial assumptions about the partition, position and constitution of Libya’s state. It is precisely Libya’s position at the periphery of rival geopolitical imaginaries and asserted spheres of influence that makes of it a crossroad of strategic vectors, a hotspot of collisions, and therefore a centre of concern.

An Investigation on the Visible Characteristics of Four Caesalpiniaceae Wood Species in Gabon

Color, whiteness and glossiness of four caesalpiniaceae wood species were characterized by quantitative measurements and image analysis, i.e., which were respectively Berlinia bracteosa Benth., Monopetalanthus heitzii Pellegr., Distemonanthus benthamianus and Erythrophleum ivorense A. Chev. The color of four wood species was evaluated to be consistent by the CIELab and CIE1931 color system. The boards of B. bracteosa, M. heitzii and E. ivorense was divided into dark color. The wood color of B. bracteosa had the highest red to green hue, while the wood appearance of D. benthamianus had the brightest and yellowest color within the four wood species. The whiteness of D. benthamianus was significantly higher than the other three wood species, namely tangential section 21.9% and radial section 22.2%. Hence, the color of the four species varied significantly, which was closely related to internal constituents of wood materials. M. heitzii wood had the highest surface glossiness on both tangential and radial section surfaces. The surface glossiness was highly related to the wood microstructure, especially with the pore and groove structure. This study of the visible characteristics provided the indicated knowledge for the application of the four wood species in wood industry.

A Feminist Physiology: B. J. Feijoo (1676–1764) and His Advice for Those in Love

This essay analyzes how the Benedictine monk Benito Jerónimo Feijoo (1676–1764), one of the most popular Spanish natural philosophers in Europe and America, discussed amorous attraction. In an attempt to reconcile Catholic dogma with empirical knowledge, Feijoo explained the origin of love as the result of wave-like interactions between sensual stimulus, imagination, nerve fibers, and the heart. His physiological model considered men and women to be equal in their internal constituents, which had important consequences for a possible science of matching. First, a possible match could only be known by a physical encounter; second, love bonds could be controlled by training the imagination; third, a harmonious society with happy marriages required accepting the intellectual equality of the sexes. The essay suggests how our knowledge about the nature of emotions influences the way we imagine an ideal society, as it is ultimately about the forces that attract and separate people, as well as the mechanisms to control them.

Extending the Ring Theory of Personhood to the Care of Dying Patients in Intensive Care Units

It is evident, in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic that has physicians confronting death and dying at unprecedented levels along with growing data suggesting that physicians who care for dying patients face complex emotional, psychological and behavioural effects, that there is a need for their better understanding and the implementation of supportive measures. Taking into account data positing that effects of caring for dying patients may impact a physician’s concept of personhood, or “what makes you, ‘you’”, we adopt Radha Krishna’s Ring Theory of Personhood (RToP) to scrutinise the experiences of physicians working in intensive care units (ICU) using a fictional scenario that was inspired by real events. The impact of death and dying, its catalysts, internal constituents, external factors, dyssynchrony, and buffers, specific to ICU physicians, were identified and explored. Such a framework allows for ramifications to be considered holistically and facilitates the curation of strategies for conflict resolution. This evaluation of the RToP acknowledges the experience and wide-ranging effects it has on ICU physicians. As such, our findings provide insight into their specific needs and highlight the importance of support on a personal and organisational level. Although further research needs to be conducted, the RToP could serve as the basis for a longitudinal assessment tool supported by the use of portfolios or mentorship due to their provision of personalised, appropriate, specific, timely, accessible and long-term support.

Organizational responses to work-life balance issues: The adoption and use of family-friendly policies in Korean organizations

ABSTRACT Korea’s low birth rate raises the issue of work-life balance (WLB) in the country. Given this context, this study aims to explore the factors that contribute to the adoption and use of family-friendly policies (FFPs) as a result of companies’ adaptive responses to internal and external pressures. This study explores these factors by focusing on the organizational slack and internal constituents based on organizational adaptation theory. The findings indicate that internal constituents (i.e., labor unions and the proportion of female, older and professional employees) have an impact on the adoption and use of FFPs, while the impact of organizational slack is limited. The results suggest strengthening policies to facilitate communications between employees and employers as well as among employees to enhance the effectiveness of WLB policies.

Antibacterial and Antibiofilm Formation Activities of Pyridinium-Based Cationic Pillar[5]arene Against Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

An omnipresent pathogenic bacterium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa PAO1), is easy to contaminate environmental water or foods, causing daily food spoilage and infections. The biofilm-forming ability and bacterial resistance of P. aeruginosa PAO1 make it difficult to be eradicated by traditional bacteriostatic agents. In this work, we designed and synthesized a pyridinium-based pillar[5]arene (PP5), while trimethylammonium-based pillar[5]arene (TP5) was used as a control compound. After clear characterization, the antibacterial and antibiofilm activities as well as the microbial resistance of TP5 and PP5 against P. aeruginosa PAO1 were extensively examined. It was revealed that PP5 exhibited good inhibition activity with the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 0.051 mmol/L, while no significant antibacterial and biofilm formation activity for TP5 against P. aeruginosa PAO1 was observed. More importantly, PP5 had negligible antimicrobial resistance even after 18th passages. A transmission electron microscope (TEM) showed that PP5 could physically disrupt the cell membranes, causing the leakage of internal constituents, which is possibly ascribed to the synergistic penetrability and π-π interactions of strain, thus greatly reduced the development of bacterial resistance. Overall, the presented studies indicated that pyridinium moieties could facilitate the cationic pillar[5]arene to generate surprising antibacterial and antibiofilm formation ability against P. aeruginosa PAO1.

Only one way to be a world-class university? Comparative analysis on the texts and visual images on websites of universities in China and South Korea

ABSTRACT With the ubiquity of the internet in every domain of life, university websites are considered an effective tool to create institutional image and communicate with internal and external constituents. Focusing on websites of four universities in China and South Korea who seek to become World-class universities, this study examined how these universities portray themselves using texts and visual images on their websites. Utilizing Fairclough’s three-dimensional critical discourse analysis, we found that all universities similarly used texts presenting their world-class status, and pictures showing their international engagement and research accomplishments. In spite of the different institutional and national settings and languages used (national versus English-language websites), little differences in the texts and visual images were found. Implications for the current discussion on WCUs and future research are elaborated.

Formation of motivational mechanism in strategic management of a diversified enterprise

The successful functioning of a diversified enterprise requires a well-organized team of workers and well-chosen business structures for cooperation and integration to provide balanced and effective development of its business units aimed at the maximum satisfaction of its own interests and achievement of the general goal of the enterprise functioning. The establishment and support of such relations depend significantly on the effective motivational activities both for the enterprise employees (internal ones) and its partners (external ones). At the same time, the intensity of the motivational activities for different business entities depends on the level of their possible influence on the efficiency of the corresponding business entity performance, the level of coordination and optimality of mutual relations between these business entities, and success of the strategic development of the whole diversified enterprise. That is, the motivational activities for different influence groups are different depending on the enterprise mission, the focus of its long-term goals, the chosen strategic way of the development, and others. Purpose. Consequently, the objective of this article is to elaborate theoretical and methodical recommendations regarding the formation of the complex motivational mechanism of the diversified enterprise by grounding and selection of a motivational system for each influence group attractive for it at a certain point of time (employees, consumers, opponents, and suppliers). Methodology. To achieve the set objective, the research of this work is conducted using the methods of generalization, abstraction, analysis, synthesis, and situational modeling. The calculation of the efficiency of the proposed activities of the complex motivational mechanism is conducted using the methods of factor analysis, effective competition theory, and integral method. Findings. The research conducted resulted in the definition of the structure of complex motivational mechanism of the diversified enterprise, description of the features of its external and internal constituents, and formation of the influence groups for each constituent. Possible ways of the combination of important for the enterprise influence groups are formed and of the main conditions for their use are presented depending on the selected general strategy of the enterprise development. Originality. The novelty of this article involves theoretical and practical recommendations for the formation, implementation, and realization of the activities of the complex motivational mechanism for the diversified enterprise. Practical value. The activities of the complex motivational mechanism for the JV Spheros-Electron Ltd. have been developed. The key elements of the formation and the methods of realization of the motivational systems for different influence groups of the enterprise under study have been described. The efficiency of the proposed activities has been calculated which proves their effectiveness, soundness of the development, and necessity of realization.

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Chirality of the biomolecules enhanced its stereospecific action of dihydromyricetin enantiomers.

The present study explores the effect of chirality of the biological macromolecules, its functional aspects, and its interaction with other food components. Dihydromyricetin (DHM) is a natural novel flavonol isolated from the vine tea (Ampelopsis grossedentata) leaves. However, limited progress in enantiopure separation methods of such compounds hinder in the development of enantiopure functional studies. This study is an attempt to develop a simple, accurate, and sensitive extraction method for the separation of the enantiopure DHM from vine tea leaves. In addition, the identification and purity of the extracted enantiopure (−)‐DHM were further determined by the proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H‐NMR) and the carbon nuclear magnetic resonance (13C‐NMR). The study further evaluates the antimicrobial activity of isolated (‐)‐DHM in comparison with racemate (+)‐DHM, against selected foodborne pathogens, whereas the action mode of enantiopure (−)‐DHM to increase the integrity and permeability of the bacterial cell membrane was visualized by confocal laser scanning microscopy using green fluorescence nucleic acid dye (SYTO‐9) and propidium iodide (PI). Moreover, the morphological changes in the bacterial cell structure were observed through field emission scanning electron microscope. During analyzing the cell morphology of B. cereus (AS11846), it was confirmed that enantiopure (−)‐DHM could increase the cell permeability that leads to the released of internal cell constituents and, thus, causes cell death. Therefore, the present study provides an insight into the advancement of enantiopure isolation along with its antimicrobial effect which could be served as an effective approach of biosafety.

Chemical Defense of Yacón (Smallanthus sonchifolius) Leaves against Phytophagous Insects: Insect Antifeedants from Yacón Leaf Trichomes.

Yacón is a perennial crop with high insect resistance. Its leaves have many glandular trichomes, which may be related to pest resistance. In order to collect the constituents of glandular trichomes, leaves were rinsed using dichloromethane (DCM) to obtain the rinsate, and the plant residues were subsequently extracted by DCM to obtain a DCM extract containing the internal constituents of yacón leaves. Biologic evaluations revealed that insect antifeedant activity was stronger for the rinsate than for the DCM extract against the common cutworm. The major constituents of rinsate were isolated by silica gel flash chromatography and were identified as sesquiterpene lactones (SLs), uvedalin (1) and enhydrin (2) and uvedalin aldehyde (3), collectively known as melampolides. Although SLs 1 and 2 exhibited remarkably strong insect antifeedant activity, SL 3 and reduced corresponding derivatives (4 and 5) of 1 and 2 exhibited moderate insect antifeedant activity. Additionally, the two analogs, parthenolide (6) and erioflorin (7) showed moderate insect antifeedant activity. The results indicate that the substituent patterns of SLs may be related to the insect antifeedant activities. The insect antifeedant activities of SLs 1 and 2 were similar to that of the positive control azadirachtin A (8), and thus these natural products may function in chemical defense against herbivores.

The Exposome in Toxicologic Pathology.

The "exposome" is an individual's lifetime spectrum of chemical exposures beginning at conception. An exposome includes general external influences such as pollution and weather; external individual-specific factors (diet, infections, self-selected chemical intake); and internal individual-specific constituents (metabolic byproducts, microbiome derivatives, inflammatory mediators, stress hormones, etc). The exposome paradigm is inherent in animal toxicity testing because laboratory studies are designed so that subjects share a common exposure history encompassing not only exposure(s)/treatment(s) but also other chemical sources (eg, air, bedding, food, water). Toxicologic pathologists should remember that some differences in responsiveness to a test article may reflect subtle differences in individual exposomes of seemingly equivalent test animals. Translation of toxicity data obtained in tests of genetically inbred animals maintained under controlled environmental conditions to produce quasi-identical exposomes at best offers only approximate guidance regarding potential responses in genetically heterogeneous human populations who live in many environmental settings and thus have divergent, complex exposomes.

Alternative approach towards critical behavior and microscopic structure of the higher dimensional Power-Maxwell black holes

Employing a new approach toward thermodynamic phase space, we investigate the phase transition, critical behavior and microscopic structure of higher dimensional black holes in an Anti-de Sitter (AdS) background and in the presence of Power-Maxwell field. In contrast to the usual extended $P-V$ phase space where the cosmological constant (pressure) is treated as a thermodynamic variable, we fix the cosmological constant and treat the charge of the black hole (or more precisely $Q^s$) as a thermodynamic variable. Based on this new standpoint, we develop the resemblance between higher dimensional nonlinear black hole and Van der Waals liquid-gas system. We write down the equation of state as $% Q^s=Q^s(T,\psi)$, where $\psi$ is the conjugate of $Q^s$, and construct a Smarr relation based on this new phase space as $M=M(S,P,Q^s)$, while $% s=2p/(2p-1)$ and $p$ is the power parameter of the Power-Maxwell Lagrangian. We obtain the Gibbs free energy of the system and find a swallowtail behaviour in Gibbs diagrams, which is a characteristic of first-order phase transition and express the analogy between our system and van der Waals fluid-gas system. Moreover, we calculate the critical exponents and show that they are independent of the model parameters and are the same as those of Van der Waals system which is predicted by the mean field theory. Finally , we successfully explain the microscopic behavior of the black hole by using thermodynamic geometry. We observe a gap in the scalar curvature $R$ occurs between small and large black hole. The maximum amount of the gap increases as the number of dimensions increases. We finally find that character of the interaction among the internal constituents of the black hole thermodynamic system is intrinsically a strong repulsive interaction.

The Tsallis entropy and the BKT-like phase transition in the impact parameter space for pp and collisions

In this paper, one uses the Tsallis entropy (TE) in the impact parameter space to study pp and inelastic overlap function and the energy density filling up mechanism responsible by the so-called black disk limit as the energy increases. The TE is non-additive and non-extensive and these features are of fundamental importance since the internal constituents of pp and are strongly correlated and also the existence of the multifractal character of the total cross-section. The entropy approach presented here takes into account a phase transition occurring inside the hadrons as the energy increases. This phase transition in the impact parameter space is quite similar to the Berezinskii–Kosterlitz–Thouless phase transition, possessing also a topological feature due to the multifractal dimension of the total cross-sections in pp and scattering.

Organisms live at far-from-equilibrium with their surroundings while maintaining homeostasis, importing exergy and exporting entropy

Organisms live at far-from thermodynamic equilibrium with their surroundings. They import exergy, export entropy and maintain constancy of their vital internal physiological constituents via homeostasis. Calculations based on the data collected from literature showed that homeostasis helps organisms to save exergy in living processes. On the other hand, temperature homeostasis, which serves to maintain constant body temperature in endotherms is achieved by consuming exergy. The daily exergy expenditure rate of an animal depends on the rate of its metabolism, body weight and the nutritional exergy up take. While an endothermic (homeothermic) mammal, which spends 30% of its time on the field active metabolic mode and the rest of the day in resting mode needs 5.9 g of meat/kg day to satisfy its exergy need; an ectothermic reptile with the same field active and resting metabolic pattern would need 0.5 kg of meat to satisfy its daily exergy need.

Evaluating and measuring the internal control system in light of local and international auditing standards

The study aimed to define the theoretical framework for the internal control system in the light of studies, research and recent publications by touching on the concept of the internal control system, its objectives, importance, constituents and types in general, and exposure to the components of the internal control system in light of the requirements and standards of domestic and international auditing related to the internal control system, In addition to studying and evaluating the internal controlsystem in the Circle Erbil Health Department to know the availability of local audit requirements in it and the extent of its compatibility with international auditing standards to identify the shortcomings in this system and determine the most important procedures Take it to avoid it. The study generally tries to answer the following questions: Does Circle Erbil Health Department follow proper internal control procedures?Are the control procedures followed in conformity with the laws, regulations, and instructions, and are they in compliance with local and international auditing standards? The study hypothesis is as follows: There are indicators in the performance of the internal control system in the Circle Erbil Health Department that comply with the auditing standards. To achieve the goals of the research, the descriptive approach was adopted to cover the theoretical aspect of the study and the applied approach in evaluating the internal control system in the Department of Health, Erbil. The study reached many conclusions and suggested many recommendations. Among the most important conclusions reached by thestudy issued by many international bodies and organizations Several standards and guidelines, which touched on the components and elements of the internal control system due to its importance, as studies indicate that a quarter of the international auditing standards addressed aspects related to the internal control system.

Analysis and Sorting of Individual HSV-1 Particles by Flow Virometry.

Flow cytometry has been instrumental in characterizing normal and infected cells. However, until recently, it was not possible to use such an approach to analyze small entities such as bacteria, let alone viruses, owing to the 0.5μm resolution of most instruments. To circumvent this limitation, some laboratories decorate pathogens with antibodies or nanoparticles. Our laboratory instead exploits an alternative approach that relies on the staining of internal viral constituents with permeable SYTO dyes or the fluorescent tagging of individual viral proteinaceous components, whether capsid, tegument or glycoproteins. This opens up a range of new research avenues and, for example, enabled us to characterize individual herpes simplex virus type 1 particles, discern their different subpopulations, measure the heterogeneity of mature virions in terms of protein content, sort these viral particles with >90% purity and, for the first time, directly address the impact of this heterogeneity on viral fitness. This approach, coined flow virometry or nanoscale flow cytometry, allows for the study of a wide variety of pathogens with high statistical significance and the potential discovery of novel virulence factors.