Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles Research Articles

Factors influencing tyre/road noise under torque

High levels of road traffic noise negatively impact public health in many parts of Europe, especially in cities. The introduction of electric mobility is often seen as one of the best measures to reduce noise exposition in urban environments. Compared to internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV), there is an increased importance of tyre/road noise for electric vehicles (EV) because of the reduced masking by the powertrain noise. This effect increases further under acceleration. Firstly, it is known that in most cases tyre/road noise is higher under torque than for free rolling. Secondly, in situations which are characterized by increased driving torque, the lack of masking from powertrain noise for EVs is especially evident when compared to ICEVs. The aim of the LIFE E-VIA project is to reduce road traffic noise in cities by providing noise optimized road surfaces and tyres for EVs. Because of the mentioned effects, not only constant speed driving needs to be considered but also accelerated driving. Consequently, within E-VIA noise measurements from an indoor drum and a test track have been used to investigate the impact of different tyre parameters and operating conditions on the change of tyre/road noise under acceleration when compared to free rolling.

Cradle-to-Grave Lifecycle Analysis of Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Light-Duty Passenger Vehicles in China: Towards a Carbon-Neutral Future

Vehicle electrification is considered a pathway for on-road transportation decarbonization in China. Different from the conventional gasoline vehicles whose emissions are mainly released from vehicle tailpipes, emissions of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are from the upstream processes of electricity generation and vehicle manufacturing, thus a comprehensive lifecycle analysis and comparison of BEVs with gasoline vehicles is required to quantify the emission mitigation benefit of vehicle electrification and determine the path to a carbon-neutral future. In the study, we compare the cradle-to-grave (C2G) lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions of gasoline and electric vehicles in China and analyze the greenhouse gas emission reduction of vehicle electrification in different provinces. Results show that under the current technologies, the national average C2G GHG emissions for battery electric vehicles (BEVs) of 100 miles (i.e., 160 km) and 300 miles (i.e., 480 km) all-electric range (AER) are 231 and 279 g CO2eq/km, respectively, 22% and 5% lower than those for gasoline internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). Improving vehicle fuel efficiency by hybridizing gasoline ICEVs can effectively reduce C2G emissions to 212 g CO2eq/km. At the provincial level, C2G GHG emissions of BEVs vary according to the provincial electricity mix. In eight provinces, C2G GHG emissions of BEVs with 300 miles AER (BEV300s) are higher than those of gasoline ICEVs due to the GHG-intensive coal-based electricity mix. In the future scenario, with low carbon fuels (such as high-level bioethanol blending gasoline) and electricity decarbonization, the national average C2G emissions of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and BEV300s can be reduced to 55 and 73 g CO2eq/km, respectively. Further decrease of C2G GHG emissions relies on reducing vehicle-cycle emissions from material processing and vehicle component manufacturing.

Features of designing scenarios for the development of hybrid technologies in the Russian and foreign automotive industry

The relevance of the development of hybrid electric vehicle technology in the automotive industry lies in its diversity. Various degrees of hybridization allow you to get bonuses for both conventional cars with an internal combustion engine and pure electric vehicles, while controlling the level of electrification of your cars, from soft hybrids close to cars with only an internal combustion engine to plug-in hybrids more similar to pure electric vehicles. Depending on the policy of the automaker and the requirements of the market, it is possible to use various designs, including those based on existing developments. The article analyzes the modern automotive market in Russia and the share of cars with hybrid technology in it. A comparison of the development of hybrid technology in modern automotive construction of Russian and foreign automakers is made. The specificity of designing scenarios for the development of hybrid technologies in the Russian and foreign automotive industries is reflected in the very process of using hybrid technology in the models of foreign automakers. Thus, the use of mild hybrid technology is mainly used by automakers with the aim of a smooth transition to more electrified versions, the design and implementation of mild hybrid technology is used by automakers to improve the environmental parameters of their cars while maintaining dynamic performance or to increase the latter. Full hybridization technology can also be used as a transitional for full electrification of models, however, it is mainly used in electric vehicles aimed at a hybrid device. Sequential hybridization technology has not been widely used in passenger cars.

Parametric study on thermal management system for the range of full (Tesla Model S)/ compact-size (Tesla Model 3) electric vehicles

Electric vehicle is slowly taking over the market share of internal combustion engine vehicle around the globe and range extension study turns into a one key research area. Electric vehicle thermal management system plays a large role in driving range, whereas existing literature mainly focus on component level and lack the vehicle level range analysis. This study conducts a parametric study on the vehicle level thermal management and its impacts on the range of two vehicles (full size - Tesla Model S/ compact size – Tesla Model 3). Vehicle level thermal system model is built considering air conditioning refrigerant loop, indirect battery liquid cooling loop, and cabin cooling air loop. In addition, vehicle propulsion system model is built and utilized in the range simulation. Five feedback controllers are designed for the thermal management system to control the temperature of battery pack, cabin climate, condenser subcool, evaporator superheat, and chiller superheat. Various factors are considered in the parametric study including air conditioning system on/off switch, vehicle size, driving cycle, ambient temperature, cabin target temperature, and battery pack target temperature. In the results analysis, the performance of five feedback controllers is evaluated in step response and a driving cycle. Energy consumption of aerodynamic drag, rolling resistance, thermal management, regenerative braking, and auxiliary load are discussed in the parametric study. The results show that turning air conditioning system on could potentially reduce the EV range by 38–45 % at city driving condition. In addition, Ambient temperature shows significant nonlinear impact on EV range and the impact gets worse as temperature turns higher. For Tesla Model 3, when the ambient temperature rises from 30 °C to 35 °C and then to 40 °C, the range drops by 3.3 % and 13.4 %, respectively. Compared with ambient temperature, cabin temperature and battery pack temperature settings have less impact on the range. The code utilized in this study is made open source via Github (https://github.com/binxuAI/EV_TMS), which can be utilized as the guidance in the thermal management range impact analysis and concept design of electric vehicle.

A National and Regional Greenhouse Gas Breakeven Assessment of EVs across North America

Electrification is considered key to decarbonizing the transport sector. While electric vehicles (EVs) lack tailpipe emissions, battery and electricity production can lead to significant emissions. This study analysed whether EVs can effectively mitigate GHG emissions in North America, by calculating two GHG breakeven indicators for EVs and comparing them to internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). EV life cycle emissions were compared to those of ICEVs in Canada, Mexico, and the USA. In addition, this study considered potential national electricity grids evolutions and improvements in battery production and vehicle efficiency. The study estimated that EVs in Canada, the USA, and Mexico would see environmental benefits after 18.0, 25.1, and 25.6 thousand driven kilometres, respectively, as compared to petrol vehicles. Regionally, Québec had the lowest emissions (12.9 tCO2eq) for EVs while Iowa (62.0) had the highest. In several states, EVs did not outperform ICEVs. Emissions from EVs are expected to decrease in coming years as the carbon intensity of electrical grids decreases. Policies should consider prioritising grid decarbonization over EV uptake where regional grid GHG intensity is high. This work provides one of the first regional and international case studies determining the environmental breakeven points of EVs when considering trade.

Lifecycle carbon footprint comparison between internal combustion engine versus electric transit vehicle: A case study in the U.S.

Since transportation accounts for a large portion of a city's overall greenhouse gas emissions, cities are looking to lessen this effect by replacing more internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) with electric vehicles (EVs). In this research, two vehicle models of comparable size from each category were compared using life cycle analysis (ICEV and EV). The ICEV is a Ford Transit van, while the EV is a Ford E-transit van, both of which are supposed to have a lifespan of 150,000 km for comparison. Carbon footprint for both vehicles is examined from cradle-to-grave: including raw material production, manufacturing, transportation, operation, and decommissioning. According to the findings, the carbon emissions produced per kilometer by an electric vehicle are considerably lower. The Ford transit van emits 469.1 gCO2-eq/km and the Ford E-transit van emits 363.2 gCO2eq/km during a vehicle's lifetime. The impact of electricity generating in each U.S. states on the carbon footprint of ICEVs and EVs showed that the use of renewable energy sources for power generation would result in a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions. Lifespan sensitivity analysis with 100000 km and 350000 km indicated that the longer life of a vehicle alters the efficiency balance in favor of an electric vehicle.

Value of different electric vehicle charging facility types under different availability situations: A South Korean case study of electric vehicle and internal combustion engine vehicle owners

The availability of charging facilities plays a critical role in electric vehicle (EV) adoption; however, as EVs continue to diffuse and the initial lack of charging availability is improving in some countries, governments must consider additional charging facility rollout policies as EVs can be charged through various types of facilities, including those at households, workplaces, and public areas. Previous studies mainly utilized real-world charging data or surveys conducted solely on EV owners for investigating these aspects. However, the opinion of conventional internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) owners is also important when making policy decisions for EV charging facilities. As EVs are expected to positively impact the environment, ICEV owners may also value the rollout of EV charging facilities. Moreover, some ICEV owners are potential future EV owners. Therefore, along with surveying EV owners, this study utilized the contingent valuation method for ICEV owners to estimate how their willingness to pay (valuation) changes under different facility rollout stages (initial and additional) and different types of charging facilities (public and workplace). The results showed that ICEV owners also imposed significant value for EV charging facilities. However, they imposed higher values than EV owners on public chargers during the initial diffusion stage.

Well-to-Wheels for Light-Duty Vehicle Powertrains by Segments in Isolated Systems

The transportation sector has the highest energy demand worldwide and bears the primary responsibility for CO2 emissions. Electromobility has emerged as the most feasible way to alleviate this problem. However, its potential depends heavily on the development of renewable energies. Island regions raise additional barriers to electromobility due to their heavy dependence on fossil fuels. This article addresses this challenge by presenting a comprehensive well-to-wheel framework to assess the levels of efficiency and CO2 emissions of electromobility options such as battery and plug-in electric vehicles (BEVs and PHEVs). The results were compared with those for internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). The framework proposed takes account of various factors including the extraction, refining, and transport of oil, different segments of land vehicles, and electricity system operations. The framework is demonstrated with a case study of the Spanish Canary archipelago. The results show that BEVs improve efficiency and CO2 emissions by around 30% compared to ICEVs on islands where the share of renewable energies is higher than 21%. In contrast, limited renewable generation may lead to BEVs polluting up to 15% more than ICEVs. PHEVs should be considered as a suitable alternative if the share of renewable generation is higher than 35%.

Cradle-to-grave mercury emissions of light-duty gasoline and electric vehicles in China

China is actively promoting vehicle electrification, which is deemed to help achieve its ambitious carbon neutrality goal by 2060. Here we show that vehicle electrification in China leads to an increase in automotive emissions of mercury, a persistent, global hazardous pollutant regulated in the United Nations’ Minamata Convention. We found that with current technologies, life-cycle mercury emissions of battery electric vehicles of 300 miles of all-electric range are 92% higher than conventional gasoline internal combustion engine vehicles, primarily due to the high mercury emissions from coal-based electricity generation. Notably different from greenhouse gases, mercury emissions are mainly embedded in vehicular material production and vehicle manufacturing, accounting for 50–60% for electric vehicles and ∼90% for gasoline vehicles of their life-cycle mercury emissions. Even with a deeply decarbonized power grid, mercury footprints of electric vehicles would still be higher than those of gasoline vehicles, implying a potential increase in automotive mercury emissions in any countries that promote vehicle electrification. Measures including decarbonizing electric grid, implementing mercury-specific emission control through vehicle supply chain, and increasing metal recycling in electric vehicle batteries will help mitigate the unintended mercury emission increase caused by vehicle electrification.

Achieving Cost Parity for Battery Electric Vehicles in Africa: a case study of Ghana

ABSTRACT Ghana commits to reducing greenhouse gas emissions of 64 MtCO2 and reducing 2,900 premature deaths but has very low electric vehicle penetration. We used a total cost of ownership model to determine the cost of ownership parity of BEV compared to internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV). The results show that BEV will not reach cost parity with ICEV until the 11th year. Waiving the 20% import duty on BEV only reduced the years to parity by a year. Cost parity for the BEV was achieved in the seventh year when the interest rate was reduced from 23% to 10%. By waiving import duty and reducing the interest rate of BEV to 10%, cost parity was reached right from the first year. BEV in Ghana could reduce CO2, NOx, VOC, SOx, and PM emissions by 72%, 85%, 99.2%, 41%, and 60% respectively. Based on the 7.17 MtCO2e attributed to transportation emissions in 2016, a BEV transition could reduce CO2 emissions by 5 MtCO2e. We conclude that a special financing scheme with an interest rate below 10% should be made available for green financing. Additionally, we recommend the removal of the 20% import duty for BEV to reach cost parity with ICEV.

Incorporating Health Cobenefits into Province-Driven Climate Policy: A Case of Banning New Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle Sales in China.

Incorporating health cobenefits from coabated air pollution into carbon mitigation policy making is particularly important for developing countries to boost policy efficiency. For sectors that highly depend on electrification for decarbonization, it remains unclear how the increased electricity demand and consequent health impacts from sectoral mitigation policy in one province would change the scale and the regional and sectoral distributions of the overall health impacts in the whole country. This study chooses the banning of new sales of internal combustion engine vehicles in the private vehicle sector in China as a case. The results show that, without carbon neutrality and air pollution control goals in electricity generation, 53% of CO2 reduction and 65% of health benefits from the private vehicle sector would be offset by increased electricity demand. The regional distributions of CO2 reduction and health benefits due to a province-driven ban policy are greatly uneven, as the top five provinces take up over one-third of the total impact in China. Health benefits per ton of carbon reduction (H/C) may vary by up to 8 times across provinces. Finally, the provinces in southeast China and the Sichuan Basin, with their stably high H/C values, are suggested to enact the province-driven ban policy first.

A feasibility analysis on adopting electric vehicles in the short food supply chain based on GHG emissions and economic costs estimations

The transition toward electric mobility is recognised as a powerful contributor to reaching the goal of reducing environmental pressure from the transport sector minimizing greenhouse gas emissions. Over recent years several studies analysed the economic convenience of adopting electric vehicles as well as its impact on greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. However, very few studies evaluated both economic cost and environmental emissions in a real-life environment. This study aimed to investigate the economic costs of battery electric vehicle adoption in the short food supply chain and its impact on the environment in terms of greenhouse gas emissions when compared to corresponding petrol-powered vehicles. It also aimed to examine the influence of policy measures on this transition process. To achieve these objectives, data were obtained from market research and the testing phase of a project co-funded by the European Interreg Med Programme. Based on collected data, economic cost and greenhouse gas emission of both battery electric vehicle and internal combustion engine vehicle use were determined. The results emphasise that when compared to corresponding petrol-powered vehicles, the economic convenience of electric vehicles as well as their positive impact on greenhouse gas emissions is evident after a finite distance is covered, which grows thereafter. Simulated scenarios confirm the importance of the incentives for vehicle acquisition promoted by governments to reduce their economic cost, whilst also confirming the influence that an energy mix consisting of renewable energy sources could have on achieving the environmental benefits of adopting electric vehicles over a shorter period and distance. In light of these results, some recommendations can be provided to promote the spread of battery electric vehicles in the short food supply chain. In detail, financial support is needed to both purchase battery electric vehicles and support projects to obtain lower-cost batteries. At the same time, a great effort should be made by policymakers to create an efficient network of recharging infrastructures also powered by alternative energies to further reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Assessing policy interventions to stimulate the transition of electric vehicle technology in the European Union

The European Union (EU) is taking steps to gradually reduce its reliance on fossil fuels, as well as to decarbonize the entire energy and automotive systems, with the goal of reaching carbon neutrality by 2050. As such, road transportation plays a fundamental role in this process. Internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles are to be slowly decommissioned as other powertrain systems arise for multiple reasons, from greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to urban air quality. To change both the technological and consumer landscapes, governments must act through policymaking intervention. Electric vehicles (EVs) provide a significant opportunity to address this issue, and as such, the current work aims at assessing national-level policy intervention within the EU regarding the EV transition. This study employs the ELECTRE (ELimination Et Choix Traduisant la REalité - ELimination and Choice Expressing the REality) TRI-nC method to classify 27 EU Member States (MSs) regarding their governance in terms of EV technology promotion. Overall, financial incentives still have a big effect on EV deployment, since those countries with greater concern on this topic were generally better classified than the rest. Finally, charging infrastructures also play a critical role, either making or breaking the deployment of EVs, leading to the worst classification of MSs with very few charging points per 100 thousand urban inhabitants.

Energy Management Optimization Based on Aging Adaptive Functional State Model of Battery for Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles

Energy Management Optimization Based on Aging Adaptive Functional State Model of Battery for Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles

A semi-desirable location and sizing model for hydrogen fuel storage areas: A case study for Istanbul

Due to their sustainable nature and high energy efficiency, hydrogen fuel vehicles (HFVs) gradually replace gasoline internal combustion engine vehicles. The increasing number of HFVs brings out the need for installing hydrogen fuel storage areas (HFSAs) that serve as local suppliers for the fuel retail stations. In this study, we consider the HFSA locating and sizing problem for the Anatolian side of Istanbul and pose it as a bi-objective semi-desirable facility location problem which incorporates both social and transshipment costs as push and pull objectives. Next, by adopting a weighted goal programming framework, we minimize the total weighted unwanted deviations from each goal for years between 2021 and 2030 while accounting for several organizational and governmental rules. Our modelling approach is also supported by a structured demand prediction methodology which accounts for the HFV market penetration rates and other parameters such as predicted population, number of HFVs on road, etc. Having two conflicting objectives, we adopt a posteriori approach and generate a representative set of non-dominated solutions to provide decision support to planners and investors. Finally, we perform a sensitivity analysis to account for the uncertainty in the hydrogen fuel demands of districts by defining an uncertainty set for the demand of each district. Sensitivity analysis reveals how and how much change in the district demands modify the most preferred solution.

Electric Vehicle Charging Pricing Design for Agent-Based Traffic Microsimulation

Over the past few years, electric vehicles (EVs) have become a popular mode of individual transportation due to their significant benefits over internal combustion engine vehicles, resulting in significant growth in their penetration rate. However, the current flat electricity charging pricing and rapid diffusion of EVs may impose challenges to both transportation systems and power grids. It is well-accepted that the implementation of charging pricing schemes is a promising solution for changing and controlling EV users’ charging behavior. Nevertheless, in most research studies that have examined pricing schemes, the charging logic is defined in a way that agents will charge their vehicles while performing their daily activities. This will make the application of pricing schemes unfeasible, as agents will not have the freedom to unplug their EVs whenever they want, to reduce their billing costs. Accordingly, this paper provides an agent and activity-based framework for charging pricing schemes by decoupling activity and charging start and end times. Following this, three different charging pricing schemes have been introduced, including time of use (TOU), non-linear and zonal pricing and tested on the Montreal scenario.

Social Acceptance and Preference of EV Users—A Review

Electric vehicles (EVs) are drawing increasing attention, given the volatile fuel prices and impending reduction in fuel supplies. EVs are also preferred in the automotive industry as they reduce the environmental impact and fuel consumption while achieving a higher efficiency when compared to internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). Although most of energy and environmental policies worldwide have set targets with the goal to shift from classic fossil fuel driven vehicles to electrified transport, the share of EVs is still rather low. The complexity of changing the human perception of transportation goes beyond technical and economic aspects and very few research activities managed to capture the additional factors. This paper presents a comprehensive review of studies on consumer preferences for EV, aiming to better inform policy-makers and give direction to further research. In addition, this paper discusses the main obstacles that limit the social acceptance in adopting EVs such as driving obstacles, charging obstacles and willingness-to-pay from consumers. Furthermore, mitigation strategies are outlined as the recommendation to promote a better EV deployment.

Integration of Drivers’ Routines into Lifecycle Assessment of Electric Vehicles

With the aim of minimising Green House Gases (GHGs) emissions, older Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (ICEVs) are being banned from circulating in city centres around the world. Different legislations have been passed to phase-out ICEVs with the parallel introduction of cleaner means of transportation such as Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs), Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs), and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs). While different Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) models that calculate the carbon footprint of vehicles exist, these models tend to average the carbon footprint per energy unit throughout the day—instead of measuring the actual carbon footprint during charging times, which is directly correlated to the generation mixture at that specific point—and therefore fail to accurately map emissions. In this paper actual time of charging is incorporated in LCA aiming to increase the accuracy and the fairness of the comparison of the different technologies, using actual consumption data gathered from different countries in Europe.

Experimental and modeling analysis on thermoelectric heat recovery to maximize the performance of next-generation diesel engines dedicated for future electrified powertrains

• A fast predictive thermoelectric generator (TEG) model is developed and validated. • A 4-cylinder 2.2 L diesel engine model with TEG is developed and calibrated. • The effective power of 1.1 kW is generated from a 3-layer TEG (1.5 × A4 size). • Brake thermal efficiency of 49.9 % is demonstrated in the next-generation engine. • The TEG system improves the engine brake thermal efficiency by 1.1 %. Thermoelectric generators (TEG) can recover significant energy loss from exhaust heat and improve brake thermal efficiency (BTE) of internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. However, its utilization is restricted due to increased pump losses when it is integrated with ICEs. This work uses a model-based design approach to maximize the performances of a next-generation, production-intent 2.2 L diesel engine dedicated to future electrified powertrains via TEG heat recovery. To take full advantage of TEG in the engine, a thermoelectric module (TEM) arrangement in TEG must be optimized, accounting for a tradeoff between increased pump loss and TEG effective power. Firstly, a high-fidelity 1D TEG model is developed, and a novel model calibration method is proposed by using simplified user-defined functions of heat transfer and flow friction factors. Measured thermal performances of the TEG heat exchanger are reproduced under various fin pitches, Reynolds numbers, and inlet gas conditions. The TEG model is integrated with the well-calibrated engine to maximize its BTE and power. Under the most efficient condition (peak BTE at 2250 RPM, 60% load), BTE = 48.7% and 52.1 kW brake power are obtained under the baseline case without TEG. An optimal 9 × 10 TEM arrangement generates a 1.1 kW effective power from the 3-layer TEG model (1.5 × A4 paper size, 150 mm height, 36 kg weight). Finally, a 1.1% BTE improvement is obtained without power loss in the next-generation, highly efficient, hybridized diesel engine.

Exploration of the drivers influencing the growth of hybrid electric vehicle adoption in the emerging economies: Implications towards sustainability and low-carbon economy

The heavy reliance of the transportation and power generation sector on fossil fuels is seriously impacting the environment. Transitioning towards more sustainable transportation modes is necessary to reduce this dependency on fossil fuels. Even though shifting toward electric vehicles (EVs) can reduce harmful emissions, due to the lack of adequate charging infrastructures, underdeveloped power transmission systems, and increased cost of power generation, it is difficult for a developing country to adopt and rely heavily on EVs. However, developing countries like Bangladesh can adopt a different strategy to address this issue. Harmful emission reduction is also possible by transitioning from conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles to hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). The drivers that can promote the expansion of HEV adoption have not been extensively studied to date, which inspired the proposed study. This study explores the drivers for the growth of HEV adoption in emerging economies. First, the study identifies seventeen drivers from the literature review and expert feedback. Then the identified drivers were assessed using the Bayesian Best-Worst method (BWM). The study findings indicate that no requirement for a charging station, incentivizing consumers through policy measures, and enhanced fuel efficiency are the top three drivers influencing the growth of HEV adoption in developing or emerging economies. This study can help the decision-makers and end users in developing counties to gradually shift towards a low-carbon emission-based economy and ensure a greener and more sustainable future.