Internal Balancing Research Articles

China’s Response to the Unipolar World: The Strategic Logic of Peaceful Development

This article examines the international factor underlying China’s grand strategy of peaceful development, which can be deciphered as a strategy to balance American power through internal balancing and soft balancing. The strategy of internal balancing aims to increase China’s relative power through economic development and military modernization, whereas the strategy of soft balancing attempts to limit US ability to impose its preference on China through Beijing’s engagement in multilateral institutions, bilateral partnerships, and economic diplomacy.The strategic logic is to maintain a stable external environment for China to concentrate on economic growth and accumulate relative power — without provoking a vigorous US response.

North Korean Strategies in the Asymmetric Nuclear Conflict with the United States

The traditional structural-power approach falls short of accounting for North Korea’s nuclear strategies. Contrary to conventional wisdom, North Korea has been engaged in balancing acts against the United States, employing internal balancing, soft balancing, and omnibalancing strategies, while deviating from bandwagoning, the dominant strategy of small states. The present analysis of the North Korean case also demonstrates that a state’s behavior is not merely a response to the international structure of power distribution, but also a reaction to a state’s domestic situation. In addition to changes in the international power structure and perceived security threats, North Korea’s flagging economy, guiding ideology, competition with the South, and regime legitimacy have all compensated for the asymmetry of power between North Korea and the United States.

Sinning Saints and Saintly Sinners

The question of why people are motivated to act altruistically has been an important one for centuries, and across various disciplines. Drawing on previous research on moral regulation, we propose a framework suggesting that moral (or immoral) behavior can result from an internal balancing of moral self-worth and the cost inherent in altruistic behavior. In Experiment 1 , participants were asked to write a self-relevant story containing words referring to either positive or negative traits. Participants who wrote a story referring to the positive traits donated one fifth as much as those who wrote a story referring to the negative traits. In Experiment 2 , we showed that this effect was due specifically to a change in the self-concept. In Experiment 3 , we replicated these findings and extended them to cooperative behavior in environmental decision making. We suggest that affirming a moral identity leads people to feel licensed to act immorally. However, when moral identity is threatened, moral behavior is a means to regain some lost self-worth.

The Concept of Negotiation in Shared Decision Making

In central definitions of shared decision-making within medical consultations we find the concept of negotiation used to describe the interaction between patient and professional in case of conflict. It has been noted that the concept of negotiation is far from clear in this context and in other contexts it is used both in terms of rational deliberation and bargaining. The articles explores whether rational deliberation or bargaining accurately describes the negotiation in shared decision-making and finds that it fails to do so on both descriptive and normative grounds. At the end some notes on further analysis is given and it is suggested that the interaction is more accurately described in terms of an internal balancing of values like patient best interest, patient autonomy and patient adherence by the professional that is accepted by the patient.

Integrating Consumer Rights into Copyright Law: From a European Perspective

Until recently consumers and consumer-interests have been virtually absent not only from the rules of copyright but also from copyright’s discourse. This has been so even though the combination of an expansion of copyright and a devaluation of the internal balancing mechanisms raise concern from a consumer perspective. There would, therefore, seem to be a need to incorporate a consumer perspective into copyright analysis. To integrate consumer interests in copyright law, this study recommends action aimed at two levels. On the general level it is suggested to rebalance copyright in order to recognize the interests of users on the same level as right holders. On the concrete level it is suggested to change the limitations found in copyright to ease access to reuse elements of previous works. It is also proposed to reinforce the rule on private copying and to consider measures to secure access to basic information.

Physiologic mechanisms of sequential products synthesis in 1,3‐propanediol fed‐batch fermentation by Klebsiella pneumoniae

The glycerol fed-batch fermentation by Klebsiella pneumoniae CGMCC 1.6366 exhibited the sequential synthesis of products, including acetate, 1,3-propanediol (1,3-PD), 2,3-butanediol, ethanol, succinate, and lactate. The dominant flux distribution was shifted from acetate formation to 1,3-PD formation in early- exponential growth phase and then to lactate synthesis in late-exponential growth phase. The underlying physiological mechanism of the above observations has been investigated via the related enzymes, nucleotide, and intermediary metabolites analysis. The carbon flow shift is dictated by the intrinsic physiological state and enzymatic activity regulation. Especially, the internal redox state could serve as a rate-controlling factor for 1,3-PD production. The q(1,3-PD) formation was the combined outcomes of regulations of glycerol dehydratase activity and internal redox balancing. The q(ethanol)/q(acetate) ratios demonstrated the flexible adaptation mechanism of K. pneumoniae preferring ATP generation in early-exponential growth phase. A low PEP to pyruvate ratio corresponded LDH activity increase, leading to lactate accumulation in stationary phase.

India's China Policy in the 1950s

This article examines India's China policy in the 1950s with reference to the balance of power theory. Using the logic of internal and external balancing, this article investigates the policy that India followed to contain the China threat. I argue that since Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru failed to perceive the China threat, India's policy did not aim at balancing China. In substantiating this argument, I focus upon the perceptions of Nehru, the key Indian policy maker on China, and analyse how his perceptions influenced the actual policy on ground. Studying this period in the bilateral relationship is relevant even today as some of the key issues afflicting the relationship originated during the 1950s.

State Building for Future Wars: Neoclassical Realism and the Resource-Extractive State

Neorealist theory holds that the international system compels states to adopt similar adaptive strategies—namely, balancing and emulation—or risk elimination as independent entities. Yet states do not always emulate the successful practices of the system's leading states in a timely and uniform fashion. Explaining this requires a theory that integrates systemic-level and unit-level variables: a “resource-extraction” model of the state in neoclassical realism. External vulnerability provides incentives for states to emulate the practices of the system's leading states or to counter such practices through innovation. Neoclassical realism, however, suggests that state power—the relative ability of the state to extract and mobilize resources from domestic society—shapes the types of internal balancing strategies that countries are likely to pursue. State power, in turn, is a function of the institutions of the state, as well as of nationalism and ideology. The experiences of six rising or declining great powers over the past three hundred years—China, France, Great Britain, Japan, Prussia (later Germany), and the United States—illustrate the plausibility of these hypotheses.

TOTAL ARTIFICIAL HEART UTILIZING DUAL INTRACORPOREAL CONTINUOUS FLOW PUMPS IN A CHRONIC BOVINE MODEL

Background: Total artificial hearts (TAH) may be anatomically unsuitable for implantation in 60% of the population (small adults, children). Continuous flow pumps are smaller, more power-efficient, and conducive to biventricular replacement. We used dual Jarvik 2000 Flowmakers as a TAH in a juvenile bovine model. Methods: Ventricles were transected below the atrial junction. A pericardial patch was sewn to each ventricular remnant to support the pump sewing ring. Aorta (Ao) and pulmonary artery (PA) were transected above the valves for end-to-end anastomosis of outflow grafts. Pump speed was constant (14 Krpm) on the left and varied (8–12 Krpm) on the right. Vascular resistances were managed pharmacologically. Results: Pump flows (L/min) averaged 7.6±1.1 on the left and 7.2±1.1 on the right. Pressures (mmHg) were 98±17 (Ao), 19±6 (PA), 12±7 (LA), and 17±6 (RA). End-organ function and blood ANF, TNF, ACE and catecholamine levels remained normal. The animal died on day 20 when right pump controller accidentally separated from its power supply. Conclusion: We showed feasibility of an implantable, constant-flow TAH. Preload sensitivity of rotary pumps allowed adequate compensation of left-sided flow imbalance without an ASD or internal balancing mechanism.Figure

Using Controller Reduction Techniques for Efficient PID Controller Synthesis

Balanced reduction relies on the internal balancing of the controllability and observability grammians to eliminate weakly observable and controllable modes. Weighting functions are often used to improve this procedure. Several benefits exist in implementing low-order rather than high-order controllers. It is, therefore, imperative to reduce any errors that result from using the infinite grammians in the controller reduction process. By fixing the structure of the high-order controller and choosing an appropriate frequency interval for the balanced reduction a system that assumes a second-order controller is obtained, forming the basis for an efficient approximation/optimization towards obtaining a robust PID controller. This paper establishes a procedure for choosing the weighting functions.

Aerodynamic Model Reduction Through Balanced Realization

ERODYNAMIC model reduction based on internal balancing is examined for incompressible potential flow and is shown to allow signification reduction in model complexity. The technique wa sv alidated against classical two-dimensional incompressible unsteady results, as well as an aeroelastic flutter boundary calculation. In particular, new insight is given into the relationship between balanced aerodynamic states and the fundamental physics of airfoil and wing motion. The form of the principal retained states suggests that the physics of a few dominant limiting-case airfoil motions characterize the flow. Comparison with exact solutions for a twodimensional case are shown to illustrate this point. A popular technique for aerodynamic model reduction is to per

Both Guns and Butter, or Neither: Class Interests in the Political Economy of Rearmament

Astate that is confronted with a grave external threat has three basic options of response, each of which involves certain trade-offs. First, it can strengthen its military. Rearmament, or “internal balancing,” allows it to maintain its diplomatic freedom of action, but its economy may suffer from the strain of accelerating the production of weapons of war. Second, it can join forces with another power. Alliances may obviate the need for an arms buildup, but they carry the risk that the state will be abandoned by its partners or drawn into undesired conflicts. Finally, it can attempt to reconcile with its adversaries by conceding to some of their demands. Appeasement may be the least troublesome way to eliminate a threat, but it is also the most risky because it transfers valued resources to a potential opponent. After weighing these options, the state should choose the policy, or combination of policies, that will provide an acceptable level of security at the lowest overall cost. 1 The foregoing account is appealingly parsimonious, but it captures only part of the story. States are frequently racked by bitter internal debates over how to deal with international pressures, and changes in their political leadership sometimes bring about sudden shifts in their behavior. Of the three strategies described above, rearmament is often the most acutely divisive. It requires a sharp increase in the extraction and mobilization of resources from society, so it can become highly politicized. Some groups will inevitably bear a heavier burden than others, and their discontent may eventually endanger the regime’s hold on power or its ability to prepare for war. To ensure domestic

Vibration control of cable-stayed bridges—part 1: modeling issues

The objective of the research presented here is to increase the understanding of how the complexities associated with modeling cable-stayed bridges, such as non-linear behaviour and the participation of highly coupled, high-order vibration modes in the overall dynamic response, affect the overall effectiveness of active control schemes. The 316-degree-of-freedom analytical model studied here is based on the Jindo Bridge located in South Korea. Computational considerations associated with control analyses require the size of the model to be significantly reduced, without loss of the important vibration characteristics and complexities. Three separate reduced-order modelling techniques for creating effective control models are studied here: the IRS method, the internal balancing method, and a modal reduction method. These methods are studied and compared on their ability to capture the complex dynamic response of cable-stayed bridges subjected to multiple-support excitation and their ability to create viable and computationally sound state-space models for control analyses. Results show that the modal reduction technique, because of the ability to select only those modes causing the largest force and displacement response, is most effective for control applications. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Language: en

Slewing Multimode Flexible Spacecraft with Zero Derivative Robustness Constraints

References 1Lim, K. B., and Gawronski, W., “Actuator and Sensor Placement for Control of Flexible Structures,” Control and Dynamics Systems, edited by C. T. Leondes, Vol. 57, Academic, San Diego, CA, 1993, pp. 109–152. 2Gawronski, W., and Lim, K. B., “Balanced Actuator and Sensor Placement for Flexible Structures,” International Journal of Control (to be published); also AIAA Paper 95-3259. 3Lim, K. B., and Gawronski, W., “Hankel Singular Values of Flexible Structures in Discrete Time,” Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, Vol. 19, No. 6, 1996, pp. 1370–1377; also AIAA Paper 96-3757, 1996. 4Gregory, C. Z., Jr., “Reduction of Large Flexible Spacecraft Models Using Internal Balancing Theory,” Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, Vol. 7, No. 6, 1984, pp. 725–732. 5Boyd, S. P., and Barratt, C. H., Linear Controller Design: Limits of Performance, Prentice–Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1991, Chap. 2. 6Gawronski, W., and Williams, T., “Model Reduction for Flexible Space Structures,” Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1991, pp. 68–76. 7Moore, B. C., “Principal Component Analysis in Linear Systems: Controllability,Observability andModel Reduction,” IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, Vol. 26, No. 1, 1981, pp. 17–32.

Contours of Israel's New Strategic Thinking

As Kenneth Waltz put it, states operate in a self-help system in which threats to national security are omnipresent. Small states, in particular, have difficulties meeting challenges from powerful aggressors, since such states are by definition limited in their ability to build sizable and well-equipped military machines.I Generally, small states have little leeway; their military and diplomatic margins are thin. A few small states reconcile themselves to defensive nihilism, the abandonment of hope to establish an effective defense.2 A few others, such as Switzerland and Sweden, adopt postures of self-reliance, attempting to meet security challenges without outside help. This is also known as internal balancing; it describes the way a state aggregates power. Other small states augment their military capability by allying themselves with other countries. The mobilization of other countries' resources in confronting external threats is termed external balancing.3 Alliances, however, can constrain a state's freedom of action. In many cases, a small state's room to maneuver is also constricted by the prevailing structure of the international system and its regional subsystem. Most small states attempt to devise strategic doctrines based on a mix of external and internal balancing in order to maximize military power and the freedom to use it. Israel is an example of such a small state. This article analyzes the ways in which the international and regional environments, and internal developments

Control-Oriented Order Reduction of Finite Element Model

In the dynamics modeling of a structure, finite element analysis employs reduction techniques, such as Guyan’s reduction, that remove some of the “insignificant” physical coordinates, that is, degrees of freedom at a node point. Despite such reduction, the resultant model is still too large for control design. This warrants further reduction as is frequently done in control design by approximating a large dynamical system with a fewer number of state variables. A problem, however, arises because a model usually undergoes, before being reduced, some form of coordinate transformations that destroy the physical meanings of the states. To correct such a problem, we developed a method that expresses a reduced model in terms of a subset of the original states. The proposed method starts with a dynamic model that is originated and reduced in finite element analysis. The model is then converted to a state-space form, and reduced further by the internal balancing method. At this stage, being in the balanced coordinate system, the states in the reduced model have no apparent resemblance to those of the original model. Through another coordinate transformation that is developed in this paper, however, this reduced model is expressed by a subset of the original states, so that the states in the reduced model can be related to the degrees of freedom of the nodes in the original finite element model.

Balanced realization of separable-denominator multidimensional systems

We present a general framework for internal balancing and model order reduction for an important class (separable denominator) of multidimensional systems. It is shown that the internally balanced realizations for denominator-separable n-dimensional digital systems can be obtained by solving certain coupled Lyapunov equations. The proposed balancing and order reduction technique is illustrated by applying it to obtain low-order approximations of Gaussian and Laplacian-Gaussian infinite-impulse-response filters.

Model reduction in a subset of the original states

A model reduction method is investigated to provide a smaller structural dynamic model for subsequent structural control design. A structural dynamic model is assumed to be derived from finite element analysis. It is first converted into the state space form, and is further reduced by the internal balancing method. Through the co-ordinate transformation derived from the states that are deleted during reduction, the reduced model si finally expressed with the states that are members of the original states. Therefore the states in the final reduced model represent the degrees of freedom of the nodes that are selected by the designer. The procedure provides a more practical implementation of model reduction for applications in which specific nodes, such as sensor and/or actuator attachment points, are to be retained in the reduced model. Thus it ensures that the reduced model is under the same input and output condition as the original physical model. The procedure is applied to two simple examples and comparisons are made between the full and reduced order models. The method can be applied to a linear, continuous and time-invariant model of structural dynamics with non-proportional viscous damping.

Domestic Structure and Preventive War: Are Democracies More Pacific?

Realists have long viewed uneven rates of growth among states as a major cause of wars. According to strict logic of realpolitik, a declining dominant power should launch a preventive war against a rising challenger as a prudent long-term security strategy. But historically, power shifts have only sometimes resulted in war. Although preventive war has been the preferred response of declining authoritarian leaders, no democracy has ever initiated such a war. Instead, depending on the regime type of the rising challenger, democratic states have chosen accommodation, defensive alliances, or internal balancing to solve the problem of impending decline. In addition to establishing the correlation between preventive war and authoritarian regimes and explaining why democratic states forgo this option, this essay (1) develops a model based on the domestic structures of the leader and challenger that predicts which strategy will be employed by a declining dominant power and (2) tests the propositions against historical survey data and several in-depth case studies.

Angle-only tracking filter in modified spherical coordinates

References Gregory, C. Z., Jr., of Large Flexible Spacecraft Models Using Internal Balancing Theory,'* Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, Vol. 7, 1984, pp. 725-732. Moore, B. C., Principal Analysis in Linear Systems: Controllability, Observability, and Reduction, IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, Vol. AC-26, 1981, pp. 17-32. Gawronski, W., and Williams, T., Model Reduction for Flexible Space Proceedings of the AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ ASC30th Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials Conference, AIAA, Washington, DC, 1989, pp. 1555-1565. Gawronski, W., and Juang, J.-N., Near-Optimal Reduction in Balanced and Modal Coordinates, Proceedings of 26th Annual A llerton Conference on Communication, Control and Computing, Sept. 1988, pp. 209-219. Skelton, R. E., Decomposition of Linear Systems with Application to Reduction, International Journal of Control, Vol. 32, No. 6, 1980, pp. 1031-1055. Skelton, R. E., and Yousuff, A., Component Cost Analysis of Large Scale Systems, International Journal of Control, Vol. 37, No. 2, 1983, pp. 285-304. Clough, R. W., and Penzien, J., Dynamics of Structures, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1975. Angle-Only Tracking Filter in Modified Spherical Coordinates