Intermediate Spanish Research Articles

Comparing learners’ state anxiety during task-based interaction in computer-mediated and face-to-face communication

The construct of anxiety is often believed to be the affective factor with the greatest potential to pervasively affect the learning process (Horwitz, 2001), and recent research has demonstrated that anxiety can mediate whether learners are able to notice feedback and subsequently produce output (Sheen, 2008). In order to reduce the negative effects of anxiety, researchers have suggested that computer-based interaction may be an ideal medium for communication and practice (Kern, 1995), although this hypothesis has yet to be tested empirically. The current study addresses this gap by comparing the effect of computer-mediated communication (CMC) vs. face-to-face communication (FTF) on learners’ state anxiety. Twenty-five learners of intermediate Spanish completed two information-gap tasks with their teacher in a within-subject, counterbalanced design. Learners’ state anxiety was measured halfway through and following each task via a state anxiety questionnaire, and a task preference questionnaire was administered after the treatment. Results demonstrate that — contrary to expectations — reported state anxiety was not significantly lower in the CMC mode than the FTF mode. In fact, learners’ reported state anxiety was comparable across modality. The use and implications of both interactional modes for foreign language learning contexts are discussed, as are students’ perceptions of interaction in the CMC and FTF modes.

Developing Spanish Online Readings Using Design-Based Research

This article reports on the use of design-based research (DBR) in the development of online reading materials for beginning and intermediate Spanish learners. The report focuses on four studies of two main aspects of the development, namely, interface design and learner perceptions. The discussion of interface design includes the analysis of learner expectations and interface organization. The analysis of learner perceptions includes frequency of use and impact of multimedia glosses on the learning of vocabulary. Findings reveal the importance of involving learners in all aspects of materials design and development and make evident the strengths of a DBR approach to the research and development of instructional materials for language learning.

Intermediate Spanish: A Grammar and Workbook by WILKIE, IRENE, & CARMEN ARNAIZ

The article reviews the book Intermediate Spanish: A Grammar and Workbook, by Carmen Arnaiz and Irene Wilkie.

Learners’ Feedback in Online Chats: What Does It Reveal about Students’ Learning?

Learners engaged in synchronous computer-mediated communication (SCMC) work collaboratively to construct knowledge by providing each other with implicit and explicit feedback. In addition to its value in encouraging learners to make modifications toward target-like forms, the implicitness or explicitness of the feedback provides a means to understand the individual learner's language development (Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994). Being that microgenetic growth results from learners who provide each other with gradual and contingent help in face-to-face interactions (Ohta, 2000), it would be of interest to learn if such gradual and contingent help appears in SCMC with the same positive effects. Thus, this study explores two questions: (a) To what extent do learners in SCMC engage in similar patterns of assistance to those used in face-to-face interactions between students? (b) To what extent does microgenetic growth occur as a result of learner-learner interactions? For this study, two full classes of Intermediate Spanish I students were selected. Students were placed in pairs (plus two triads) and participated in a series of tasks as a part of their assigned class work. The researcher analyzed the discussion transcripts, identified different moments of assistance, and examined the data for instances of microgenetic growth. The results of this study suggest that, although learners did indeed provide each other with gradual and contingent feedback and, in some instances, showed microgenetic growth, neither were as apparent as those found in face-to-face interactions.

A Spanish language narrative simulation to prevent horseback riding head injury among rural youth

Objective A Spanish language version of an exercise about adolescent horseback riders' exposure to traumatic brain injuries was integrated into the Spanish curriculum in a rural Kentucky high school. Design An exploratory case study design with two groups of students. Setting and Method Thirty-eight students, enrolled in intermediate Spanish IV and advanced Spanish V language classes, completed the exercise as part of their class work. Results The students' mean age was 16.3 years with a gender distribution of 32 females, 13 of whom were horseback riders, and six male non-riders. Only six of the 13 female riders reported wearing a helmet at least half the time, and four never wore a helmet. The Spanish V students (11 of whom were riders) scored significantly higher ( p <0.05) on four of the five exercise items than the Spanish IV students (two of whom were riders). However, the groups did not differ and scored low (55.3 per cent) on an item that involved recognizing pre-event contributors to the injury event. Students with riding experience scored significantly higher than non-riders ( p <0.05) in recognizing that donning a helmet prior to riding is the most effective way to prevent a head injury. Although students believed that wearing a helmet could prevent brain injuries, they did not think they were at risk. Conclusion The exercise was successfully integrated into both classes. Discussing its vocabulary and sentence structure prior to its administration would improve its effectiveness.

¡Avance! Intermediate Spanish. 2nd ed. by BRETZ, MARY LEE, TRISHA DVORAK, CARL KIRSCHNER, RODNEY BRANSDORFER, & CONSTANCE KIHYET Workbook/Laboratory Manual to Accompany ¡Avance! Intermediate Spanish. 2nd ed. by BRETZ, MARY LEE, TRISHA DVORAK, CARL KIRSCHNER, & RODNEY BRANSDORFER

The article reviews the books Intermediate Spanish, 2nd ed., by Mary Lee Bretz, Trisha Dvorak, Carl Kirschner, Rodney Bransdorfer and Constance Kihyet and Workbook/Laboratory Manual to Accompany Avance! Intermediate Spanish, 2nd ed., by Mary Lee Bretz, Trisha Dvorak, Carl Kirschner and Rodney Bransdorfer.

The Impact of Short‐Term Study Abroad Programs on L2 Listening Comprehension Skills

Abstract: This study investigates the impact of a five‐week intermediate Spanish course on the listening comprehension ability of 48 participants in short‐term study abroad programs, and compares these groups with 92 peers enrolled in a similar course on the home campus. While both on‐campus and study abroad groups experienced similar gains in listening comprehension, there were significant differences in the way learners approached listening tasks: The study abroad group applied primarily top‐down and social listening strategies, while the on‐campus students favored bottom‐up processing. Higher‐proficiency students in the study abroad groups had significantly higher comprehension gains, and the study abroad groups achieved higher levels of confidence and self‐perceived ability after the treatment. Results outline some of the benefits and limitations of short‐term foreign sojourns for beginner and low‐intermediate language learners.

Microgenesis, Method and Object: A Study of Collaborative Activity in a Spanish as a Foreign Language Classroom

This paper draws on the Vygotskian methodological construct of microgenesis to study collaborative activity in an intermediate Spanish as a foreign language classroom. In this study, the construct of microgenesis is drawn upon to refer to both, the methodological tool to investigate language learning instances as observed in short periods of time (i.e. minutes), and also to refer to those observed language learning instances as the object of study. The Sociocultural approach to Second Language Learning (SLL) (Lantolf and Appel 1994; Donato 2000; Lantolf 2000; Lantolf and Thorne 2006) underpinning this investigation sees interaction as the enabling process that becomes essential for the individual to achieve learning and development. I refer to learning as the process through which participants are able to change, transform (i.e. develop) their use and/or understanding (see Wells 1999: 111) of the target language. Pairs/trios of students were audio-recorded while collaborating to complete three language tasks in the classroom during an academic semester in a UK university. Microgenetic analysis of the data (transcribed protocols) allowed us to gain further understanding of collaborative activity and of the importance of language as a mediational tool to co-construct meaning and learning opportunities. The results show that although each instance of microgenesis is unique, there are certain characteristics and patterns shared by the various instances identified in the data set. The investigation also highlights the importance of studying discourse markers to help us identify the learners’ level of regulation. Finally, we focus on a specific aspect of microgenesis that appears to be crucial for driving the learner's second language (L2) forward, and which following van Lier (2000: 252), I refer to as microgenesis affordance.

Using the Literary Text to Engage Language Learners in a Multilingual Community

This article discusses the use of Esmeralda Santiagok autobiography When I Was Puerto Rican (1994b) as the foundation for an experiential learning project that brought together two language communities: suburban college students studying intermediate Spanish and urban Puerto Rican students in an English-as-a-sec-ond-language (ESL) class. The researchers relate how the respective classes analyzed the text and its cultural framework in preparation for a cross-cultural encounter when both groups of students discussed their reaction to Santiago's stovy. This case study is offered as an example of how to use a literary text to achieve the objectives outlined in the Standards for Foreign Language Learning, standard 5: communities.

Outcomes Assessment for Beginning and Intermediate Spanish: One Program's Process and Results

Abstract: Outcomes assessment is a process by which an academic unit defines and articulates its program goals and assesses its attainment of those goals. This article chronicles one language division's efforts at outcomes assessment for beginning and intermediate Spanish. The evidence used for program assessment consisted of WebCAPE placement scores, student satisfaction surveys, learner portfolios, and oral proficiency interviews (OPIs). The results of the project suggest that the target goals for student progress were being met and that students were generally satisfied that the program met its stated goals. The results also suggest areas of improvement to the means by which outcomes are measured as well as areas of improvement to the curriculum.

Effects of Reader's Knowledge, Text Type, and Test Type on L1 and L2 Reading Comprehension in Spanish

The present study examined how a reader's subject knowledge, the analogy versus nonanalogy difference in text type, and type of test (written recall, sentence completion, and multiple choice) affect first language (L1) and second language (L2) reading comprehension. There were three participant groups: (a) 53 native Costa Ricans enrolled in advanced English as a Foreign Language courses in San José, Costa Rica; (b) 102 university-level students of intermediate Spanish in the United States; and (c) 138 university students of advanced Spanish in the United States. The participants read two scientific passages, two versions each (Hammadou, 2000). Analysis of covariance revealed that subject knowledge related significantly to reading comprehension as measured by three assessment tasks. However, the addition of analogies to scientific texts did not compensate for the lack of subject knowledge. There was no overall positive effect of the analogy text type on L1 and L2 comprehension as measured by recall, sentence completion, and multiple choice tests. The positive effect for the nonanalogy version held for the recall task. The participants scored higher on the nonanalogy version of both texts than on the analogy version when assessed by the recall test; no such differences emerged for either passage on the sentence completion and multiple choice tests.

Gains to Language Learners from Viewing Target Language Closed‐Captioned Films

Abstract: In an effort to facilitate students' understanding of films in the target language, many instructors turn to films with English subtitles. Viewing films subtitled in English does not encourage learners to use their previously acquired listening skills, but rather allows them to rely on reading English instead of making the extra effort required to follow what they hear in the target language. Current DVD technology offers another option: watching foreign language films closed‐captioned in the target language, which provides visual reinforcement of what students are hearing. In a comparison study of gains in vocabulary recognition made by students in intermediate Spanish conversation classes viewingfilms with English subtitles and others watching the same films with Spanish closed‐captioning we found slight differences. However, surveys of student reactions pointed to a number of possible benefits for language learners of watching closed‐captioned films in the target language. These merit further investigation.

Dialogue Journals as Mediators of L2 Learning: A Sociocultural Account

This study explores weekly dialogue journal communication as a form of mediation in L2 learning. Situating dialogue journals within the Vygotskian sociocultural theoretical framework (SCT), data is examined from the journals of eight learners (four high-frequency classroom participators and four low-frequency participators) in an intact intermediate college Spanish class. Data analysis sheds light on the unique ways that dialogue journals function as mediators of: a) identification as a language learner and reflection on language learning experiences, b) consolidation of course content as evidenced in the reporting of personal experiences and opinions relating to topics covered in class, and c) use of language functions stressed in the classroom. It is concluded that the dialogue journal is an interactive writing environment in which learner goals and agency can comprise an important part of the learning process.

Authentic Children's Literature as a Tool for Reading and Writing in the Intermediate Language Class

The methods and materials presented in this workshop were employed within a communicative-based program in a public school system in central Massachusetts. The curriculum materials distributed to the participants were used in an intermediate Spanish class designed for the average student, not an advanced-level course designed for students entering the Advanced Placement program or an honors program. The course was designed to provide students with skills in the four abilities for language-learning as described by the National Standards for Foreign Languages and the Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks for Foreign Languages. A copy of the course outline and objectives were distributed to the participants in order to provide a clear picture of the setting for the use of children's literature materials. The materials presented in this workshop were not the sole materials used in the course. The first part of the workshop was devoted to presenting the literature utilized to help the students develop their reading skills in Spanish. It is common practice in many high-school language programs to use the third book in a series. Typically, reading selections contained in these books are bounded by various grammatical points that serve as the focus of the course and accompanying assessments. The underlying belief of the foreign-language department was, and continues to be, that students gain skills in levels I and II, and need to begin to use these skills in level III in order to build and develop them. To introduce reading in the target language to the students, the course begins with a story from the Adventures ofTintin series (Las Aventuras de Tintin) by Herg?. These books are typical o? juventud in Spain, written in a comic-book format. Although the book utilizes comic-book format, the vocabulary is quite challenging and authentic. Most students are overwhelmed upon being asked to read an authentic selection of literature, simply due to the quantity of Spanish words in one place. Each Tint?n book is from 60 to75 pages. Approximately every 15-20 pages there are new challenges and crises that occur, allowing for division of the text even though there are no distinct chapters. Students are presented with a vocabulary list for each collection of 15-20 pages, in addition to activities focusing on synonyms and antonyms, and also receive comprehension questions. They are given an estimated two weeks to read. The format of the book provides the visual support that beginning students need to build their confidence and reading skills. Strategies and techniques for using visual cues, making predictions, and reading with context are all presented to the students. Classroom discussions focus on providing students with opportunities to discuss what they have read in the target language. Activities employed for these discussions include, but are not limited to, role-playing activities, chronological-order activities, flash-card vocabulary activities, etc. Assessments demand various competencies such as comprehension, vocabulary recall and identification, chronological ordering, and writings. Upon completion of the Tintin story, the students' reading skills have improved, vocabulary has increased dramatically, and confidence in the language has been augmented considerably. They are now ready for more complex reading leading to writing, which was the focus of the second half of the workshop. Increased skills allow students to read without the visual support

Beyond Linguistic Knowledge: Individual Differences in Second Language Reading

ABSTRACT: Reading in a second language (L2) is a dynamic process that involves the interplay of complex factors. This study investigated the effects of readers' gender, topic familiarity, enjoyment, and interest on second language reading. During two different class periods, 86 learners of intermediate Spanish at the university level completed: (1) a reading passage (a different passage each day), (2) a written recall comprehension task, and (3) a questionnaire. The reading passages were taken from authentic short stories often used for this level of language instruction. The findings suggested that in addition to linguistic factors that impede successful reading comprehension, other variables such as gender, passage content, and topic familiarity may increase the L2 reader's burden. Enjoyment and interest mattered little at this level of instruction. The predicted variables did not completely explain the gender differences in reading comprehension of the intermediate‐level passage topics; however, the study results indicated that when using authentic texts, instructors should incorporate prereading activities that activate learners' existing knowledge.

Evaluating Intermediate Spanish Students' Speaking Skills through a Taped Test: A Pilot Study

A pilot study used the Spanish Oral Proficiency Test (SOPT)-a taped oral test to evaluate oral proficiency level of students of Intermediate Spanish. Based on the ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines (1986), the Intermediate-Mid was the appropriate level of oral proficiency for students at the end of two years of college-level language study. The study also examined what variables might affect the development of students' oral skills. The results showed that foreign language learning experience in academic settings or outside of class, such as study abroad and travel abroad, might affect students' overall speaking proficiency. In addition, linguistic inaccuracy from informal training may keep speakers to lower levels of proficiency. Learners should be more aware of the need to speak correctly to maintain a balance between function, content, and accuracy.

An approximation to the study of backtracking in L2 writing

This article presents the findings of a small-scale study which analyses backtracking behaviour by intermediate Spanish learners of English when writing an argumentative and a narrative essay in their L2 while thinking aloud. The aims of the study were to ascertain what types of backtracking are used by L2 learners, and to analyse the influence of a number of variables on this use. Results indicate that our subjects rescan their texts, written outlines and assignment wording by using their whole linguistic spectrum (L1 and L2), although inter-subject differences are observed. Variation across subjects seems to be more dependent on the writer's approach to task completion than to the text modality itself. These results are discussed in the light of findings from process-oriented research on L2 composing and questions for a future research agenda are suggested.

Using Portfolios to Develop L2 Cultural Knowledge and Awareness of Students in Intermediate Spanish

In spite of many efforts and contributions from previous researchers, the need for a systematic and consistent approach to teaching culture is still unmet. This pilot study shows that the portfolio is a meaningful way to integrate language and culture in a structure that provides opportunities for students to learn about foreign culture while using other skills-reading, listening, writing and speaking. In addition, resources from the Internet, such as Gopher, World Wide Web, and Listservs have great potential for cultural learning out- side the classroom. Foreign language teachers should be encouraged to explore and experiment with portfo- lios in other content areas of language learning, since producing a portfolio involves higher-order cognition as well as all four communicative language skills.

Foreign Language Phonology: Field Independence, Attitude, and the Success of Formal Instruction in Spanish Pronunciation

The issue of teaching pronunciation has been severely neglected after the first year of most university foreign language (FL) courses. Moreover, research examining factors affecting the acquisition of the second language (L2) phonological system has been, in general, very scarce. In the present study I examine the acquisition of a nonnative phonological system by adult language learners studying Spanish at Indiana University, Bloomington. The objective of the study was to determine the success of supplementing intermediate Spanish courses with formal instruction in pronunciation. The instruction provided a multimodal methodology aimed to account specifically for individual differences and learning style variation. Variables such as field independence (FI), as measured by the Group Embedded Figures Test (Witkin, Oltman, Raskin, & Karp, 1971), and subject attitude or concern for pronunciation accuracy were examined in relation to improvement in pronunciation. The findings revealed that neither FI, nor subject concern for pronunciation accuracy, were significant predictors of improvement in pronunciation. In contrast, the multimodal methodology resulted in significant improvement of target language pronunciation for the subjects in the experimental group. The article ends with a classroom model of pronunciation instruction designed to enable teachers to incorporate this multimodal method into most second language (L2) curricula. There are also observations about pronunciation errors as they relate to contrastive analysis theory and several suggestions for future research.

A Reading “Din in the Head”: Evidence of Involuntary Mental Rehearsal in Second Language Readers

ABSTRACT The phenomenon of involuntary mental rehearsal of language, or the “Din in the head,” has been considered by researchers as an indicator of second language (L2) acquisition among acquirers. Previous studies have noted that the Din occurs primarily among beginning and intermediate L2 students after the reception of oral input that is comprehensible, but not after reading. It has been argued that this lack of a reported Din is due to the fact that such students typically do very little reading, and that acquirers who did read would experience a “reading Din.” This study provides evidence for an 12 Din after reading from a survey of two classes of intermediate Spanish students: a “Reading Only” group (TV = 20), whose only source ofL2 input was reading; and a “Reading and Conversation” group (TV = 15), who received both printed and oral input. Both groups reported a Din after L2 reading. The findings lend support to claims made by Krashen concerning the importance of comprehensible input in L2 acquisition. Implications for the use of reading in beginning and intermediate 12 classrooms are discussed.