Intergenerational Transmission Of Risk Research Articles

Impulsive Decision-Making, Affective Experiences, and Parental History of Self-Injurious Thoughts and Behaviors within Parent-Adolescent Dyads.

Impulsive decision-making, particularly during states of affective intensity, is associated with greater risk of engagement in self-injurious thoughts and behaviors (SITBs) during adolescence. The proximal (dyadic parent-adolescent affect and impulsivity) and distal (family history of SITBs) risk factors that occur within the family system could be relevant processes at stake in the intergenerational transmission of risk. The current study tests the interdependence of parent-adolescent factors associated with risk for SITBs and probes the extent to which parent-adolescent affective states influence their own (actor-effects) and each other's (partner-effects) impulsive decision-making, and further whether these relationships are moderated by a parent's history of SITBs. Participants included 212 (106 dyads) community parents and their adolescents who completed self-report and behavioral tasks related to positive and negative affective states, impulsive decision-making, and lifetime history of SITBs. Application of the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM) revealed a partner-effect where greater parent negative affect in the past week was associated with elevated adolescent impulsive decision-making among families with a history of SITBs (Estimate = 0.66, Standard Error = 0.13, p < 0.001). In addition, a significant actor-effect was observed where greater positive affect was associated with decreased impulsive decision-making among adolescents (Estimate = -0.21, Standard Error = 0.10, p = 0.03), however, moderating effects of parent history of SITBs were not detected. Findings from the present study shed light on the interdependence of affect and impulsivity within parent-adolescent dyads, and the extent to which these interactions may be particularly salient for families with known vulnerabilities for SITBs.

Running in the FAMILY: understanding and predicting the intergenerational transmission of mental illness.

Over 50% of children with a parent with severe mental illness will develop mental illness by early adulthood. However, intergenerational transmission of risk for mental illness in one's children is insufficiently considered in clinical practice, nor is it sufficiently utilised into diagnostics and care for children of ill parents. This leads to delays in diagnosing young offspring and missed opportunities for protective actions and resilience strengthening. Prior twin, family, and adoption studies suggest that the aetiology of mental illness is governed by a complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors, potentially mediated by changes in epigenetic programming and brain development. However, how these factors ultimately materialise into mental disorders remains unclear. Here, we present the FAMILY consortium, an interdisciplinary, multimodal (e.g., (epi)genetics, neuroimaging, environment, behaviour), multilevel (e.g., individual-level, family-level), and multisite study funded by a European Union Horizon-Staying-Healthy-2021 grant. FAMILY focuses on understanding and prediction of intergenerational transmission of mental illness, using genetically informed causal inference, multimodal normative prediction, and animal modelling. Moreover, FAMILY applies methods from social sciences to map social and ethical consequences of risk prediction to prepare clinical practice for future implementation. FAMILY aims to deliver: (i) new discoveries clarifying the aetiology of mental illness and the process of resilience, thereby providing new targets for prevention and intervention studies; (ii) a risk prediction model within a normative modelling framework to predict who is at risk for developing mental illness; and (iii) insight into social and ethical issues related to risk prediction to inform clinical guidelines.

Placental Cortisol Dysregulation in Mothers with Experiences of Childhood Adversity: Potential Mechanisms and Clinical Implications.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are extremely prevalent in the United States population. Although ACEs occurs in childhood, exposure to them has been associated with adverse future pregnancy outcomes and an increased risk of poorer social determinants of health, which further drive the risk of negative pregnancy outcomes. In addition, maternal ACE exposure has been linked to poor infant and child outcomes, highlighting the intergenerational transmission of risk from mother to child. While alterations along the Maternal-Placental-Fetal Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is hypothesized to be involved, the exact biological pathway underlying this intergenerational passage of risk is mostly unknown. This present work will highlight what is known about pregnancy-related stress hormone physiology, discuss the potential mechanisms of action of ACEs on cortisol regulation, and suggest opportunities for further clinical and translational studies.

Children of trauma survivors: Influences of parental posttraumatic stress and child-perceived parenting

BackgroundResearch has established a negative association between parental posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), including subthreshold symptoms, and child physical and behavioral health outcomes. Such intergenerational transmission of risk has multiple possible mechanisms, including lack of positive parenting, increased negative parenting, shared environmental and contextual risks, and potential biological components such as shared genetics or even transmission of epigenetic risk. MethodThis study examined 93 parent-child dyads (n = 171 participants total) from a mixed Urban-Suburban US metropolitan area to investigate the relations between parental PTSS and child-perceived parenting and child PTSS. We sought to examine interactions between parental PTSS and parenting on child PTSS. ResultsWe found an association between parent and child PTSS, consistent with prior literature showing increased risk for children of trauma survivors. Interestingly, we found effects of positive parenting on diminished child PTSS symptoms only in parents without PTSS, whereas the effect of positive parenting on buffering child symptoms was absent in parents with PTSS.Limitations.The present findings are tempered by the use of self-report data to assess parent and child PTSS, which is not as reliable as clinician assessment of symptoms. Further, the use of survey data limits what is known about the extent of trauma exposure in parents and children, and different measures were used to assess PTSS in parents and kids, which limits comparability of these reported symptoms. DiscussionLimitations notwithstanding, findings suggest joint attention paid to parenting practices and to a parent's recovery, even from subthreshold symptoms of PTSS, as two different but important ways to support trauma survivor parents in their efforts to most optimally parent and protect their children from intergenerational risk.

The intergenerational transmission of risk and trust attitudes: Replicating and extending “Dohmen, Falk, Huffman and Sunde 2012” using genetically informed twin data

This replication revisits an influential contribution on the intergenerational transmission of risk and trust attitudes, which, based on data from the German Socioeconomic Panel (GSOEP), reveals a positive correlation between parents' and children's attitudes. The authors of the original study argue that socialization in the family is important in the transmission process. The replication is motivated by mounting evidence indicating that within-family transmission has a considerable genetic component, which calls into question socialization as the main transmission pathway. To consider genetic transmission in addition to social transmission, the replication relies on the German twin family panel TwinLife. The findings reveal that, first, most of the variation in children's risk and social trust attitudes is attributable to differences in the non-shared environment, followed by genetic differences, whereas differences in the shared family environment – the main candidate for social transmission – do not matter. Second, correlations between parents' and children's attitudes essentially involve genetic similarity. Third, family conditions do not moderate these relationships. Thus, the findings do not support the socialization assumption.

The Intergenerational Transmission of Risk and Trust Attitude in the Indian Demographics

The paper aims to figure out two crucial aspects of economic decision-making- willingness to take risks and willingness to trust others in Indian society and how these behaviours are transmitted from parents to children. It classifies the difference in the level of maternal and paternal effects on the children’s risk-taking capacity and trust attitude. For risk, we segregate it into 5 categories- General, driving, finance, educational/Career, and health-related risks. It is seen that the mother’s influence on children is significant in all types owing to the fact that the majority of married Indian women are homemakers and spend more time with children. The influence of fathers was found significant for driving, finance, and health-related risks. It was also found that in most cases, female children tend to be more risk-averse than their male counterparts. We also find that the transmission from parents to children is relatively specific for different risk types. The maternal effect is more prominent when it comes to the transmission of trust attitudes. There is independence between risk-taking behaviour and trust attitude. Both of these behaviours does not influence each other; rather the heterogeneity in these two aspects of economic decision-making lies greatly in the family structure.

Associations between mothers' and fathers' depression and anxiety prior to birth and infant temperament trajectories over the first year of life: Evidence from diagnoses and symptom severity

BackgroundDevelopmental shifts in infant temperament predict distal outcomes including emerging symptoms of psychopathology in childhood. Thus, it is critical to gain insight into factors that shape these developmental shifts. Although parental depression and anxiety represent strong predictors of infant temperament in cross-sectional research, few studies have examined how these factors influence temperament trajectories across infancy. MethodsWe used latent growth curve modeling to examine whether mothers' and fathers' anxiety and depression, measured in two ways – as diagnostic status and symptom severity – serve as unique predictors of developmental shifts in infant temperament from 3 to 12 months. Participants included mothers (N = 234) and a subset of fathers (N = 142). Prior to or during pregnancy, both parents were assessed for lifetime diagnoses of depression and anxiety as well as current severity levels. Mothers rated their infants' temperament at 3, 6, and 12 months of age. ResultsMothers' depression and anxiety primarily predicted initial levels of temperament at 3 months. Controlling for mothers' symptoms, fathers' depression and anxiety largely related to temperament trajectories across infancy. Lifetime diagnoses and symptom severities were associated with distinct patterns. LimitationsInfant temperament was assessed using a parent-report measure. Including an observational measure would provide a more comprehensive picture of the infants' functioning. ConclusionsThese results indicate that mothers' and fathers' mental health are uniquely associated with infant temperament development when measured using diagnostic status and/or symptom severity. Future studies should examine whether these temperament trajectories mediate intergenerational transmission of risk for depression and anxiety.

RODITELJSKI POSTUPCI I SOCIJALNA PODRŠKA U MEĐUGENERACIJSKOM PRIJENOSU RIZIKA ZA MENTALNO ZDRAVLJE DJECE

Numerous studies confirm the intergenerational transmission of various behaviors and characteristics from parents to children, as a result of complex genetic and non-genetic environmental processes. This large area of research began with studies on the intergenerational transmission of Holocaust trauma from parents to children and over time expanded to include various behaviors and characteristics, including the transmission of psychopathological symptomatology and mental health problems. This paper presents an overview of relevant knowledge related to the role of parental practices and social support in the process of intergenerational transmission of risk for children’s mental health. These constructs are singled out as important in this process because they can be directly affected by appropriate psychosocial interventions. However, their specific role is still insufficiently researched or unclear due to contradictory findings. The paper highlights the methodological issues of previous research in this area, provides guidelines for further research, and discusses the possible application of the existing knowledge in psychosocial work, as well as the importance of interdepartmental cooperation in this context. Key words: intergenerational transmission; mental health; children; parental practices; social support

Maternal history of maltreatment and offspring's emotional and behavioral problems in adolescence: Do family factors contribute to the intergenerational risk transmission?

BackgroundA history of childhood maltreatment often has a negative and long-lasting impact across different domains in life. A childhood maltreatment experience in parents may even affect the next generation. So far, the effects of family factors have been considered in the intergenerational transmission of adversity across the childhood years, but whether the effects remain until adolescence is less clear. ObjectiveUsing data from a large population-based study in the Netherlands, including both mother and child reports, we examined whether maternal childhood maltreatment history is associated with increased mental health problems in offspring and the role of family functioning and harsh parenting as a potential pathway. Participants4912 adolescents (aged 13 years) and their mothers were recruited in the Generation R study. MethodsMothers reported childhood maltreatment experiences using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), and adolescents reported on their mental health using the Youth Self Report (YSR). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the association of maternal childhood maltreatment on mental health problems in offspring and family functioning and harsh parenting as mechanisms to explain this association. ResultsAdolescents of mothers with a history of maltreatment had greater internalizing (β = 0.07, p < .01) and externalizing problems (β = 0.08, p < .01). Moreover, we found an indirect effect via family functioning over time and harsh parenting at ages 3 and 8 years which mediated this association. ConclusionWe concluded an intergenerational effect of maternal childhood maltreatment on adolescents internalizing and externalizing problems. The findings might enable earlier intervention within the family context to mitigate the consequences of maternal childhood maltreatment.

Maternal childhood trauma and postpartum well-being in a Turkish sample: The path from attachment to alexithymia

Childhood traumas predispose adult individuals to develop insecure attachment styles in close relationships and alexithymia features causing limitations in emotional capacity. For new mothers, postpartum is a period in itself that may increase mood problems such as depression and anxiety and mothers may question their efficacy in their maternal role. Thus, the purpose of the current research was to examine the relationship between maternal childhood trauma, mood problems, and self-efficacy via serial mediation of insecure attachment styles and alexithymia. A sample of postpartum Turkish mothers with healthy singleton infants (N = 63, Mage = 29.19) participated in the research. Mothers filled out the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-Short Form, the Perceived Maternal Parenting Self-Efficacy Tool, CES-Depression Scale, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, the Experiences in Close Relationships Inventory-II, and the Toronto Alexithymia Scale during a home visit when the infants were one month old. In statistical analyses, the PROCESS macro for serial multiple mediation was applied. The results indicated that the relationship between maternal childhood trauma and postpartum depression and anxiety was serially mediated by anxious attachment and, in turn, alexithymia. On the other hand, the serial mediator roles of insecure attachment styles and alexithymia on the relationship between maternal childhood trauma and postpartum self-efficacy were not significant; rather, the direct effect of maternal childhood trauma on postpartum self-efficacy was significant. Findings suggest anxious, rather than avoidant, attachment, and alexithymia as intervention targets to buffer the effects of maternal childhood trauma on postpartum mood problems and self-efficacy, which may consequently prevent the intergenerational transmission of risk.

Maternal childhood trauma, postpartum mood problems, and self-efficacy in a Turkish sample: The path from attachment styles to alexithymia

Childhood traumas predispose adult individuals to develop insecure attachment styles in close relationships and alexithymia features causing limitations in an emotional capacity. For new mothers, postpartum is a period in itself that may increase mood problems such as depression and anxiety and mothers may question their efficacy in their maternal role. Thus, the purpose of the current research was to examine the relationship between maternal childhood trauma, mood problems, and self-efficacy via serial mediation of insecure attachment styles and alexithymia. A sample of postpartum Turkish mothers with healthy singleton infants (N = 63, Xage = 29.19) participated in the research. Mothers filled out the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-Short Form, the Perceived Maternal Parenting Self-Efficacy Tool, CES-Depression Scale, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, the Experiences in Close Relationships Inventory-II, and the Toronto Alexithymia Scale during a home visit when the infants were one month old. In statistical analyses, the PROCESS macro for serial multiple mediation was applied. The results indicated that the relationship between maternal childhood trauma and postpartum depression and anxiety was serially mediated by anxious attachment and, in turn, alexithymia. On the other hand, the serial mediator roles of insecure attachment styles and alexithymia on the relationship between maternal childhood trauma and postpartum self-efficacy were not significant; rather, the direct effect of maternal childhood trauma on postpartum self-efficacy was significant. Findings suggest anxious, rather than avoidant, attachment and alexithymia as intervention targets to buffer the effects of maternal childhood trauma on postpartum mood problems and self-efficacy, which may consequently prevent the intergenerational transmission of risk.

Maternal FGF2 levels associated with child anxiety and depression symptoms through child FGF2 levels

BackgroundRecent research implicates fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) in anxiety and depressive symptoms of childhood. This study is the first to examine an intergenerational pathway linking FGF2 levels in mothers to FGF2 levels in children, and to the children's anxiety and depressive symptoms. MethodsWe assayed serum FGF2 in 259 mothers and their children, with a range of anxiety and depressive symptoms: 194 were mothers of clinic-referred anxious and depressed children; 65 were mothers of non-referred children. We examined associations between FGF2 levels in mothers and children, and anxiety and depression symptoms. We used structural equation modeling (SEM) to examine associations between maternal and child FGF2 levels, and between maternal and child FGF2 levels and symptoms of anxiety and depression in and children. ResultsFGF2 levels in mothers and children were significantly positively correlated. Children's FGF2 levels were significantly negatively correlated with their ratings of anxiety and depression. Results of the SEM model showed that increases in maternal FGF2 levels were significantly associated with increases in child FGF2, which in turn was associated with decreases in child anxiety and child depression, controlling for maternal anxiety and depression. LimitationsWe relied on self-reported ratings of anxiety and depression, and on a single measurement of FGF2 levels for each participant. ConclusionsOur results point to a role for FGF2 in the intergenerational transmission of risk for, and resilience to, anxiety and depression in youth.

Genetic nurture versus genetic transmission of risk for ADHD traits in the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study

Identifying mechanisms underlying the intergenerational transmission of risk for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) traits can inform interventions and provide insights into the role of parents in shaping their children’s outcomes. We investigated whether genetic transmission and genetic nurture (environmentally mediated effects) underlie associations between polygenic scores indexing parental risk and protective factors and their offspring’s ADHD traits. This birth cohort study included 19,506 genotyped mother-father-offspring trios from the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study. Polygenic scores were calculated for parental factors previously associated with ADHD, including psychopathology, substance use, neuroticism, educational attainment, and cognitive performance. Mothers reported on their 8-year-old children’s ADHD traits (n = 9,454 children) using the Parent/Teacher Rating Scale for Disruptive Behaviour Disorders. We found that associations between ADHD maternal and paternal polygenic scores and child ADHD traits decreased significantly when adjusting for the child polygenic score (pΔβ = 9.95 × 10−17 for maternal and pΔβ = 1.48 × 10−14 for paternal estimates), suggesting genetic transmission of ADHD risk. Similar patterns suggesting genetic transmission of risk were observed for smoking, educational attainment, and cognition. The maternal polygenic score for neuroticism remained associated with children’s ADHD ratings even after adjusting for the child polygenic score, indicating genetic nurture. There was no robust evidence of genetic nurture for other parental factors. Our findings indicate that the intergenerational transmission of risk for ADHD traits is largely explained by the transmission of genetic variants from parents to offspring rather than by genetic nurture. Observational associations between parental factors and childhood ADHD outcomes should not be interpreted as evidence for predominantly environmentally mediated effects.

Patterns of adverse childhood experiences among Chinese preschool parents and the intergenerational transmission of risk to offspring behavioural problems: moderating by coparenting quality

ABSTRACT Background: Although intergenerational transmission of ACEs among parents and their offspring have been extensively studied in the West, few studies have been conducted in China on preschool children and their parents, and explore the protective fact for the intergeneration transmission. Objective: Using latent class analysis and moderation model, this study examined the associations between patterns of adverse childhood experiences of Chinese preschool parents and behavioural problems in their children and whether coparenting quality plays a protective role in this relationship. Method: A retrospective study was conducted on 3091 parent–child dyads from 11 kindergartens in the northern, central, and southern Anhui provinces in China. Online questionnaires were used to collect the data. Parents reported adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and provided information on their children's behavioural problems and perceived coparenting quality. Latent class analysis and a moderating model were used to examine the associations between patterns of adverse childhood experiences of Chinese preschool parents and behavioural problems in their children, and the moderating role of coparenting quality. Results: Four classes were identified: a high ACEs group, a violent victimisation group, a child abuse and physical neglect group, and a low ACEs group. Increasing levels of co-parenting quality were associated with reduced parent-reported child behaviour problems for all classes, and that potentially buffering effect was significantly stronger for the low ACEs class than for children whose parents in high ACEs class. Conclusions: Exposure to high ACEs increases the risk of developing behavioural problems in offspring, and coparenting quality may serve as a protective mechanism for intergenerational transmission. Future research should develop and implement interventions to support disadvantaged, at-risk parents and promote coparenting quality.

Maternal sensitivity moderates the association between maternal history of childhood maltreatment and child executive function

BackgroundExperiences of childhood maltreatment are associated with a variety of negative outcomes throughout individuals' lives as well as disadvantaged cognitive and socioemotional development among their offspring. The mechanisms through which some children show resilience against the intergenerational transmission of risk, however, are less well understood. ObjectiveThe current study focuses on a proximal parental factor that plays a central role in children's early cognitive development – maternal sensitivity – and examines whether it moderates the association between maternal history of childhood maltreatment and child executive function (EF). Participants and settingData were collected from a community sample of 139 mothers and their infants (51 % female) recruited from urban areas in Ontario, Canada. MethodsMaternal maltreatment history was assessed via self-report at child age 3 months. Maternal sensitivity was assessed observationally at child age 8 months, and child executive function was assessed using performance-based measures at child age 3 years. Hypotheses were tested through multiple regression models. ResultsIn the current sample, maternal maltreatment history was not associated with child EF on average. However, results were consistent with a moderation model, indicating that maternal maltreatment history was associated with lower levels of child EF only when mothers were relatively insensitive. ConclusionsThe findings indicate the importance of considering sensitive parenting practices as a protective factor for children's cognitive development in the context of more distal risk factors such as mothers' history of childhood maltreatment.

Maternal Adversity and Epigenetic Age Acceleration Predict Heightened Emotional Reactivity in Offspring: Implications for Intergenerational Transmission of Risk.

Black American women are disproportionately exposed to adversities that may have an intergenerational impact on mental health. The present study examined whether maternal exposure to adversity and epigenetic age acceleration (EAA; a biomarker of stress exposure) predicts the socioemotional health of her offspring. During pregnancy, 180 Black American women self-reported experiences of childhood adversity and marginalization-related adversity (i.e., racial discrimination and gendered racial stress) and provided a blood sample for epigenetic assessment. At a three-year follow-up visit, women reported their offspring's emotional reactivity (an early indicator of psychopathology) via the CBCL/1.5-5. After adjusting for maternal education and offspring sex, results indicated that greater maternal experiences of childhood trauma (β = 0.21, SE(β) = 0.01; p = 0.01) and racial discrimination (β = 0.14, SE(β) = 0.07; p = 0.049) predicted greater offspring emotional reactivity, as did maternal EAA (β = 0.17, SE(β) = 0.09, p = 0.046). Our findings suggest that maternal EAA could serve as an early biomarker for intergenerational risk conferred by maternal adversity, and that 'maternal adversity' must be defined more broadly to include social marginalization, particularly for Black Americans.

Intergenerational transmission of risk for PTSD symptoms in African American children: The roles of maternal and child emotion dysregulation.

Emotion dysregulation is a transdiagnostic risk factor for many mental health disorders and develops in the context of early trauma exposure. Research suggests intergenerational risk associated with trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), such that maternal trauma experiences and related symptoms can negatively impact child outcomes across development. The goals of the present study were to examine child and mother correlates of child PTSD symptoms and the unique roles of child and maternal emotion dysregulation in understanding child PTSD symptoms. Subjects included 105 African American mother-child dyads from an urban hospital serving primarily low-income minority individuals. Correlational results showed that child trauma exposure, child emotion dysregulation, maternal depressive symptoms, maternal emotion dysregulation, and potential for maternal child abuse all were significantly associated with child PTSD symptoms (ps < 0.05). Hierarchical linear regression models revealed that child trauma exposure, maternal depression, and maternal abuse potential accounted for 29% of the variance in child PTSD symptoms (p < 0.001). Both child emotion dysregulation (Rchange² = 0.14, p < .001) and maternal emotion dysregulation (Rchange² = 0.04, p < .05) were significantly associated with child PTSD symptoms independent of other risk factors and potential for maternal abuse was no longer a significant predictor. These results suggest that maternal emotion dysregulation may be an important factor in influencing their child's PTSD symptoms above and beyond child-specific variables. Both maternal and child emotion dysregulation could be valuable treatment targets for improving maternal mental health and parenting behaviors and bolstering child health outcomes, thus reducing intergenerational transmission of risk associated with trauma. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Maternal adverse childhood experiences and infant subcortical brain volume

BackgroundA large body of research supports the deleterious effects of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) on disease susceptibility and health for both the exposed individual and the next generation. It is likely that there is an intergenerational transmission of risk from mother to child; however, the mechanisms through which such risk is conferred remain unknown. The current study evaluated the association between maternal ACEs, neonatal brain development of the amygdala and hippocampus, and later infant negative emotionality at six months of age. MethodsThe sample included 85 mother-infant dyads (44 female infants) from a longitudinal study. Maternal ACEs were assessed with the Adverse Childhood Experiences Questionnaire (ACE-Q) and neonatal hippocampal and amygdala volume was assessed using structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Infant negative emotionality was assessed at 6 months using the Infant Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ). ResultsMultivariate analyses demonstrated that maternal ACEs were associated with bilateral amygdala volume (F(2,78) = 3.697,p = .029). Specifically, higher maternal ACEs were associated with smaller left (β = -0.220, t(79) = -2.661, p = .009, R2= 0.494, and right (β = −0.167, t(79) = -2.043, p = .044, R2= 0.501) amygdala volume. No significant association between maternal ACEs and bilateral hippocampal volume (F(2,78) = 0.215,p = .0807) was found. Follow-up regression analyses demonstrated that both high maternal ACEs and smaller left amygdala volume were associated with higher infant negative emotionality at six months of age (β = .232, p = .040, R2= 0.094, and β = −0.337, p = .022, R2= 0.16, respectively) although statistically significant mediation of this effect was not observed (Indirect effect = 0.0187, 95% CI [-0.0016-0.0557]). ConclusionsMaternal ACEs are associated with both newborn amygdala volume and subsequent infant negative emotionality. These findings linking maternal adverse childhood experiences and infant brain development and temperament provide evidence to support the intergenerational transmission of adversity from mother to child.

Supportive Emotion Socialization Mitigates Risk Between Maternal Emotion Regulation Difficulties and Preschooler Emotion Regulation.

Few studies have examined protective maternal factors that may mitigate the intergenerational transmission of risk of maternal emotion regulation difficulties on child outcomes. The current study tested whether supportive maternal emotion socialization moderated the association between maternal emotion regulation difficulties and child emotion regulation behaviors. Participants were 68 mother-preschooler (aged 36-60 months) dyads that were oversampled for maternal symptoms of borderline personality disorder, in order to achieve greater variability in the range of maternal emotion regulation difficulties. Maternal emotion regulation difficulties and supportive emotion socialization behaviors were measured using self-report questionnaires, and child emotion regulation was coded during a frustration-eliciting blocked goal task. Results partially supported study hypotheses, such that trait maternal emotion regulation difficulties were associated with child displays of sadness at low levels of supportive maternal emotion socialization, but not when mothers engaged in higher levels of supportive emotion socialization. These findings suggest that maternal emotion regulation and emotion socialization are distinctly related to child emotion expression and regulatory actions, and that adaptive maternal emotion socialization may mitigate some of the adverse transgenerational impacts of impaired emotion regulation.

Using network analysis to illuminate the intergenerational transmission of adversity

ABSTRACT Objective: The effects of maternal exposure to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) may be transmitted to subsequent generations through various biopsychosocial mechanisms. However, studies tend to focus on exploring one or two focal pathways with less attention paid to links between different pathways. Using a network approach, this paper explores a range of core prenatal risk factors that may link maternal ACEs to infant preterm birth (PTB) and low birthweight (LBW). Methods: We used data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) (n = 8379) to estimate two mixed graphical network models: Model 1 was constructed using adverse infant outcomes, biopsychosocial and environmental risk factors, forms of ACEs, and sociodemographic factors. In Model 2, ACEs were combined to represent a threshold ACEs score (≥4). Network indices (i.e., shortest path and bridge expected influence [1-step & 2-step]) were estimated to determine the shortest pathway from ACEs to infant outcomes, and to identify the risk factors that are vital in activating other risk factors and adverse outcomes. Results: Network analyses estimated a mutually reinforcing web of childhood and prenatal risk factors, with each risk connected to at least two other risks. Bridge influence indices suggested that childhood physical and sexual abuse and multiple ACEs were highly interconnected to others risks. Overall, risky health behaviours during pregnancy (i.e., smoking & illicit drug use) were identified as ‘active’ risk factors capable of affecting (directly and indirectly) other risk factors and contributing to the persistent activation of the global risk network. These risks may be considered priority candidate targets for interventions to disrupt intergenerational risk transmission. Our study demonstrates the promise of network analysis as an approach for illuminating the intergenerational transmission of adversity in its full complexity. HIGHLIGHTS We took a network approach to assessing links between ACEs and birth outcomes. ACEs, other prenatal risk factors, and birth outcomes had complex inter-connections Health behaviours in pregnancy were indicated as optimal intervention targets.