Intergenerational Solidarity Model Research Articles

Digital and other forms of contact between older European parents and children: the role of internet use, digital skills, emotional and geographical distance

ABSTRACT Guided by the intergenerational solidarity model and leveraging rich data from the European Social Survey round 10 (2020–2022), we examine the role of internet use, digital skills, emotional and geographical distance in influencing various forms of contact between parents aged 60 or above and their children. Emotional closeness emerges as a universal driver of contact of all forms. Geographical proximity is positively associated with face-to-face interactions, but negatively with video calls. Internet use and digital skills positively associate with digital contact. Our findings suggest that fostering digital inclusion among older adults is crucial, emphasizing the role of digital literacy in maintaining family connections in a digital world. Overall, our study provides insights into adapting familial bonds amidst the digital transformation.

Zoomers and boomers: intergenerational solidarity in modern Russian society

In our study, we examine the foundations and features of intergenerational solidarity between the modern young generation of Russia (zoomers) and their ancestors (boomers), taking into account that zoomers are the first completely post-Soviet generation, and boomers are the Soviet generation, having gone through a period of active socialization in a completely different social-economic and political formation. Therefore, we are not just studying the space of intergenerational exchange, but also, in a sense, continuity between different eras – the irretrievably gone Soviet past and the current present. The material for analysis is 34 interviews with zoomers and 20 interviews with their grandparents. The theoretical basis of the study is the theory of generations and the model of intergenerational solidarity of V. Bengtson and his colleagues. In maintaining solidarity, intangible transfers play a key role, which consist of emotional exchange and support, as well as the specific role of both parties. The elders act as a source of knowledge not only about the family’s past, but also about the past of a bygone era, and the younger ones serve as reliable guides for their ancestors into the modern digital world. This unique expertise of both parties, along with the general non-conflict nature of zoomers, makes it possible to reduce the conflict potential of relationships in which not just two generations collide, but two completely different eras and value systems. Russian boomers assess their relationships with their grandchildren as warmer and closer in comparison with those they had with their grandparents.

Unionization of retired workers in Europe

We shed light on an understudied group: retirees in unions. Using representative individual-level data of 19 European countries, we find that the share of retirees in unions and the union density of retirees increased between 2008 and 2020. Econometric analyses indicate that on average retired workers’ probability of union membership is 17 percentage points lower than that of active workers, with some variation among countries. This finding is consistent with social custom models and cost–benefit considerations, but it partly questions the inter-generational solidarity model put forward in the literature. We further find that some determinants of union membership differ between active and retired workers; for instance, the (former) status of being a full-time or blue-collar worker is only statistically significant for active but not for retired workers. Overall, standard membership models better explain the unionization of active than retired workers.

Intergenerational solidarity in family: Influence of the education level on frequency of contacts

The aim of this study was to research the influence of the adult child’s and parent’s education level on the frequency of contacts between the adult child and parent, since the frequency of contacts is recognised by the intergenerational solidarity model as one of the factors strengthening the intergenerational solidarity in the family. Influence of the adult child’s and parent’s education level on time spent on the way to the parent’s home, and time spent on the way as a factor promoting frequency of contacts or preventing contacts was studied as well. Participants of the study were 332 adult children aged 18-62, residing in Latvia, and having at least one living parent. Results of the study showed that education of an adult child and a parent affected the frequency of meetings in person, frequency of contacts by phone, and the use of the information technologies. Time spent on the way to the parent’s home affected the frequency of meetings in person and of the frequency of contacts by phone.

Raising sons or daughters for old age? Influence of children's gender on intergenerational family support in rural families.

Under the background of miniaturization of family size and a growing number of young and middle-aged population outflow in rural China, the study of family pension mechanism in rural China from the perspective of changes in the pension functions of son and daughter will not only help to deepen the understanding of the change rules of China's family system, but also provide important reference for the future design of rural pension system. The data come from the China Family Tracking Survey (CFPS), a nationwide social survey project runs by the Social Science Research Centre of Peking University. After excluding missing data, we obtained a valid sample of 11,207 sons and 2028 daughters in four data periods. We applied a fixed effects model for the analysis. In rural areas, sons mainly provide economic support, while daughters mainly provide life care, thus forming a gender-based division of labor. With increasing off-farm job opportunities for daughters, they provide more economic support for their parents, but the time they spend on housework for their parents is reduced. As the number of children in a family has increased, daughters' role in supporting their parents has decreased. This research shows that although the traditional son-centered pension mode in China has not completely disintegrated, it has changed significantly. The findings reveal that changes in family size and improvements in women's status are important factors in changing family support patterns. Different from the thought research about intergenerational relationship for a whole model, this article from the family internal different subjects role identity, shows the characteristics of the individual in the family, is conducive to theoretically explore the tension in the intergenerational relationship, individual and family which is helpful to understand the contemporary China's rural family generation ethics and intergenerational solidarity model. Families are classified more carefully according to the number, size and gender of children in the family, so as to fully show the heterogeneity and complexity of intergenerational relationships and old-age care models in rural families with different structural types. The discussion of the above issues has refined the description of rural family pension resources in China, which has certain reference significance for improving rural pension policies and actively dealing with the aging population.

Współczesne dylematy związane z podjęciem się roli opiekuna rodzinnego starszej osoby

W ostatnich dekadach różne aspekty sprawowania opieki przez nieformalnych opiekunów rodzinnych nad starszymi członkami rodziny stały się przedmiotem wzrastającego zainteresowania ze strony badaczy. Obserwowane zmiany w strukturze i zasadach funkcjonowania współczesnej rodziny skłaniają do postawienia pytania o jej odpowiedzialność za sprawowanie opieki nad starszymi współmałżonkami, rodzicami i dziadkami. Szczególną uwagę zwracano na konsekwencje zdrowotne i psychospołeczne wynikające z negatywnych, stresujących doświadczeń związanych z trajektorią pełnienia tej roli. Zmianie uległy także koncepcje teoretyczne poświęcone zapewnieniu rodzinnej opieki – klasyczny model solidarności międzypokoleniowej został zastąpiony modelem ambiwalencji, który w ostatnim czasie został wyparty przez nowy model, koncentrujący się na znaczeniu indywidualnej decyzji o dokonaniu wyboru wejścia w rolę opiekuna rodzinnego, niezależnie od presji społecznej wynikającej z kulturowych norm i zobowiązań. Na podstawie przeglądu literatury przeanalizowano demograficzne i psychospołeczne uwarunkowania decyzji przyjęcia roli opiekuna rodzinnego i przedstawiono wyniki przeprowadzonego sondażu. Pytanie, czy pełnienie roli opiekuna rodzinnego jest wpisane w przyszły scenariusz życia osób niesprawujących aktualnie tej funkcji, zadane zostało 213 respondentom w wieku 35–65 lat. Uzyskane wyniki wskazują, że mniej niż połowa badanych rozważa przyjęcie w razie potrzeby takiej roli – przy czym wejście w przyszłości w rolę opiekuna było istotnie zależne od poczucia przynależności i więzi wewnątrzrodzinnych, ukształtowanych we wcześniejszych etapach życia rodziny. Istotne statystycznie różnice w planach życiowych dotyczących opieki odnotowano w zależności od wieku (częściej planowały takie działania osoby młodsze i aktywne zawodowo), natomiast nie potwierdzono istotnych różnic w zależności od płci badanych. Badani wyrażający gotowość przyjęcia roli opiekuna wiązali swoje przyszłe zadania z okazywaniem wsparcia emocjonalnego i spędzaniem czasu z osobą starszą, natomiast trudy codziennej instrumentalnej pomocy nie były przez nich w pełni brane pod uwagę.

Multigenerational social support in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Research documents high levels of instrumental, financial, and expressive support exchanges within multigenerational families in the 21st century. The COVID-19 pandemic poses unique challenges to support exchanges between the generations; however, the pandemic may provide opportunities for greater solidarity within families. In this review, we draw from theoretical perspectives that have been used to study family relationships to understand the implications of the pandemic for multigenerational families: the life course perspective, the intergenerational solidarity model, and rational choice/social exchange theory. We review literature on multigenerational relationships in the United States and discuss how established social support patterns and processes may be altered by the COVID-19 pandemic. We reflect on how the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on multigenerational relationships may vary by gender, race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. Finally, we provide directions for future researchers to pursue in order to understand the lasting impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on multigenerational ties.

Applying Bengtson’s Model of Intergenerational Solidarity to Czech Caring Families

Applying Bengtson’s Model of Intergenerational Solidarity to Czech Caring Families

The Relationship Between Religion and Intergenerational Solidarity in Eastern and Western Germany

This article investigated the relationship between religiosity and intergenerational solidarity in Germany, with a focus on differences between eastern and western regions that have maintained unique religious profiles that trace back to before unification. Based on data from Wave 6 (2013-2014) of the German Family Panel ( pairfam), 8,637 reports from 4,622 adult children about their relationships with mothers and fathers were analyzed. Using an index comprising four dimensions of the intergenerational solidarity model (distance, contact, closeness, and support), hierarchical linear regression demonstrated general support for the hypothesis that having a religious denomination is positively associated with the strength of intergenerational relations in Germany. However, this positive association is stronger in the more religious western part of Germany than in the highly secularized eastern part. These results emphasize the importance of taking social context and political history into account when studying core institutions of religion and families.

Grandparenting and adolescent well-being: evidence from the UK and Israel

ABSTRACTThis article reviews the major findings of two large-scale studies on adolescent–grandparent relationship conducted in the UK and in Israel. The Israeli study followed the UK study, deepening the investigation of some of the major themes uncovered in the British study. Both studies reveal that grandmothers and grandfathers are highly involved in adolescents’ lives and that this involvement is associated with increased adolescent well-being. The studies focus on the role of grandparents in times of parental divorce and other stressful events, as well as the weaker status of the paternal grandparents in post-divorce families and the correlates of the adolescent’s relationship with the paternal grandmother. Both studies highlight the role of intergenerational relationships, including parent–grandparent and parent–adolescent bonds, in the adolescent–grandparent relationship, in line with the intergenerational solidarity model. The Israeli study deepens our understanding of the possible contributions of cultural affiliation to the child–grandparent relationship by comparing Arab and Jewish adolescents’ self-reports of their relationships with their grandparents. These studies bring to light the possible positive role of grandparent involvement. Family psychology should pay greater attention to this role and its contribution, especially in times of transition and distress in adolescents’ lives.

Uz temu - Međugeneracijska obiteljska solidarnost u Europi

Family Solidarity in is the theme of this issue of journal Drustvena istraživanja. family solidarity is a construct that includes relationships among family members and their mutual exchange: relations of grandparents and their grandchildren, social support, quality of marital satisfaction, intergenerational differences, the importance of the quality of relations of the elderly and their adult children. The quality of life of older family members is linked to reciprocity in relationships, the older they are the more involved they are in the family and more satisfied with life ; this is reproduced in different ways in younger generations and vice versa. The texts in this issue combine a contemporary view of family relationships, described in the model of intergenerational solidarity by US scientist Verna L. Bengston. The dimensions of this model are frequent contacts, emotional proximity, similarity in thought, geographical proximity, receiving help / helping, contacts, proximity, i.e. different factors associated with the quality of life at different periods of an individual's life cycle.Intergenerational Family Solidarity in is the theme of the COST (European Cooperation in Science and Technology) Action IS1311 Intergenerational Family Solidarity across Europe (INTERFASOL) funded by the European Union. The authors of this thematic issue are active scientists from the field of psychology, sociology and other fields of social sciences, as well as collaborators in the COST Action IS1311 involving hundreds of scientists from 28 countries (EU, Israel and Turkey). In this issue, Isabelle Albert and Dieter Ferring of the University of Luxembourg present some results from a larger research study on intergenerational relations with an emphasis on intergenerational solidarity in adulthood and the role of family norms in intergenerational support and ambivalence. Valentine Hlebec and Mase Filipovic Hrast from the Faculty of Social Sciences of the University of Ljubljana analyse the characteristics and determinants of intergenerational financial transfers within families using mixed care for elderly people, where mixed care refers to a combination of formal and informal care for the elderly, within dyads comprising a care recipient and a family caregiver.Andreja Brajsa-Žganec, Ljiljana Kaliterna Lipovcan from the Institute of Social Sciences Ivo Pilar and Ivan Hanzec from Croatian Studies at the University of Zagreb using a representative sample of 1000 Croatian citizens divided into three age groups investigated how the perception of social support obtained from different sources (family, friends, significant others) contributes to well-being (happiness, life satisfaction and domain satisfactions) across the life span.Ursula Trummer and Sonja Novak-Zezula from the Centre for Health and Migration in Austria consider intergenerational solidarity in families of migrants.

Generational Solidarity in Europe and Israel.

This study explored various dimensions of generational relationships between older parents and their adult children using the second wave of SHARE (Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe), comparing it to Dykstra's and Fokkema's (2011) analyses of the first wave. Results were further compared to the OASIS study (Old Age and Autonomy: The Role of Service Systems and Intergenerational Solidarity). The intergenerational solidarity model served as the main conceptual framework. Analyses yielded four family relationship types present in all countries, albeit with different frequencies. Around half of the respondents in the 11 countries were identified with close ties and flow of support. Four conclusions were drawn: (1) importance of personal resources; (2) cultural differences and meanings for families; (3) highlighting within-country difference; and (4) strength of intergenerational solidarity. The importance of understanding generational relationships in the current era with higher longevity and changing family structures is emphasized and explicated.

Intergenerational Family Relations in Luxembourg

According to the intergenerational solidarity model, family members who share similar values about family obligations should have a closer relationship and support each other more than families with a lower value consensus. The present study first describes similarities and differences between two family generations (mothers and daughters) with respect to their adherence to family values and, second, examines patterns of relations between intergenerational consensus on family values, affectual solidarity, and functional solidarity in a sample of 51 mother-daughter dyads comprising N = 102 participants from Luxembourgish and Portuguese immigrant families living in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. Results showed a small generation gap in values of hierarchical gender roles, but an acculturation gap was found in Portuguese mother-daughter dyads regarding obligations toward the family. A higher mother-daughter value consensus was related to higher affectual solidarity of daughters toward their mothers but not vice versa. Whereas affection and value consensus both predicted support provided by daughters to their mothers, affection mediated the relationship between consensual solidarity and received maternal support. With regard to mothers, only affection predicted provided support for daughters, whereas mothers’ perception of received support from their daughters was predicted by value consensus and, in the case of Luxembourgish mothers, by affection toward daughters.

Solidarity and Ambivalence: Comparing Two Perspectives on Intergenerational Relations Using Longitudinal Panel Data

Research on family relations has extensively used the intergenerational solidarity model proposed by Bengtson and colleagues. Recently, the relevance of this model for explaining changes in family relations has been questioned, and the concept of intergenerational ambivalence has been proposed as a relevant addition to the model, supposedly acting as a catalyst, and thus serving as an explanation for changes in family relations. This study tests both the viability of the intergenerational solidarity model and the hypothesized effect of ambivalence employing longitudinal data. We use data from 2 waves of the Netherlands' Kinship Panel Study on parent-adult child relationships to estimate latent variable structural equation models. Affection, association, and support between family members are core, mutually reinforcing dimensions of solidarity. The hypothesis that ambivalence is a catalyst for change in family relations was not confirmed. Adding conflict separately revealed that it only affects the core solidarity dimensions but is itself, like normative and structural solidarity, not influenced by them. The relevance of the concept of intergenerational ambivalence for studying changes in family relations can be questioned. The viability of the intergenerational solidarity model is, however, confirmed. The concept of intergenerational ambivalence might be further explored in qualitative studies on family change.

Institutional Regulations and the Kinship Solidarity of Women—Results from 13 Areas in Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America

The article extends the model of intergenerational solidarity developed by Bengtson and Silverstein to the analysis of kinship relationships (mothers, fathers, sisters, brothers, and the respective in-laws) and culturally diverse society types. A common typology of solidarity patterns is used to compare societies, and each pattern is traced back to relational, individual, and societal conditions within a multi-level framework. The empirical analysis was based on standardized interviews with N = 7,869 mothers from different areas in China, India, Ghana, South Africa, Palestine, Israel, Turkey, Russia, Estonia, Poland, Germany, France, and the United States, comprising a total of N = 40,316 kinship relationships. The societies under study differed systematically in regard to the institutional structure of their kinship systems (i.e. matri- versus patrilinearity) and in measures of general welfare. A latent class analysis based on associational, affective, and functional solidarity yielded four patterns that were consistently replicated across different kin relations and regions. These solidarity patterns were labelled ‘tight-knit,’ ‘intimate but distant,’ ‘obligatory,’ and ‘detached.’ A cross-national multi-level multi-nomial logistic regression analysis suggested strong independent effects of both the kinship system and national wealth on kinship solidarity. Compared to relational and societal determinants, individual-level characteristics generally had a small impact.

Intergenerational Solidarity Between Adult Grandchildren and Their Grandparents With Different Levels of Functional Ability

The study examined the relationships between adult grandchildren and their grandparents from the perspectives of both generations. The sample consisted of 216 grandchild–grandparent dyads in which the grandparents had different levels of functional abilities. Participants responded to a questionnaire, which was based on Intergenerational Solidarity Model measures. Frequency of telephone contact with grandchildren was found to be higher among the group of independent grandparents than among the frail and dependent grandparents who required partial and full-time assistance. For all grandparents, the affectual dimension and actual provision of assistance by their grandchildren were related to the frequency of contact with their grandchildren. Moreover, the affectual dimension was found to be a necessary condition for grandchildren to maintain contact with their grandparents and provide functional assistance, whereas the consensual dimension was not essential. The findings also highlight the role of adult grandchildren in the elderly person's social-familial network.

Grandchildhood: Adult Grandchildren’s Perception of Their Role towards Their Grandparents from an Intergenerational Perspective

The study focuses on adult grandchildren’s perception of their role towards their grandparents according to the perspectives of both generations: the grandchildren and the grandparents. This study proposes a definition of the role of the adult grandchild, including the expectations and obligations deriving from the role. The main theories that provide the conceptual framework for this study are Symbolic Interaction Theory, Exchange Theory and the Intergenerational Solidarity Model. The sample included 216 pairs of adult grandchildren (average age: 24.9) and their grandparents (average age: 78.3), Jewish residents in Israel, who responded to closed questionnaires. The main findings of the research demonstrate that role perception of the adult grandchild is shaped by means of intergenerational transfer and by internalizing norms and behavior patterns of parents. As expected, it was found that perception of the grandchild’s role is more positive among grandchildren who experienced their grandparents as caregivers in their childhood than among grandchildren that did not have the experience of being cared for by grandparents. Grandchildren definitely possess a perception of filial obligation and responsibility toward grandparents and in fact they express more positive opinions than the grandparent regarding this responsibility. Regarding the practical implications of these results for the clinical field of therapy with aging family, the conclusion that adult grandchildren are an integral part of the grandparents’ total support network can contribute to the development of comprehensive psycho-social evaluations, as well as to the development of family treatment programs that involve the third generation.

Types of Relations between Adult Children and Elderly Parents in Taiwan: Mechanisms Accounting for Various Relational Types

This study examines the intergenerational relationships in an East Asian society, Taiwan. Types of relations from children’s perspective are used to illustrate the dynamics between adult children and their parents. Due to the rapidly declining co-residence between generations, it is assumed that those who do not practice co-residence with parents will become the majority and thus, will become the focus of analysis. Data are taken from the 2006 Taiwan Social Change Survey (Phase 5 Wave 2). The sample is constituted by 756 adults with at least one parent alive but who are not co-residing at the time of the survey. The intergenerational solidarity model proposed by Bengtson is used as the theoretical framework. The analysis first presents the difference between the co-resident and the non-co- resident groups. Then the Latent Class analysis is performed to derive five types of relations with the Normative type being the highest, followed by the Detached and the Tight-knit, then the Sociable, and lastly the Intimate but Distant type. The final analysis focuses on mechanisms accounting for different relational types. Preliminary result from Multinomial Logistic Regression indicates that the relational types derived may be an outcome of the interplay between individual resources and patriarchal norms. Most importantly, gender differentials appear to follow the prescribed cultural norm in that married sons are likely to endorse the filial norm and to fall into the Normative type, while married daughters tend to enjoy close emotional relationships and to engage in functional exchanges with parents. The paper concludes that future intergenerational relationships in Taiwan may continue to be of the strong Normative type, but at the same time, the Tight-knit type between generations may be observed. The cultural implication of possible future development is briefly discussed.

Intergenerational Solidarity in Korean Immigrant Families

The purpose of this qualitative study is to advance the concepts of the intergenerational solidarity model by using samples of Korean immigrant families. This advancement will be useful for subsequent quantitative studies. This exploratory study uncovered multiple themes that support intergenerational solidarity between Korean immigrant grandparents and grandchildren. These themes characterized supportive relationships based on affection, consensus, a mutual exchange of resources, familial norm, and structural factors such as cohabitation or religion. At the same time, this study showed disagreement and tensions between generations which resulted from different attitudes toward roles and values, as well as being burdened by care. The results of this study provide basic perspectives to clinicians, service providers, and researchers and will improve their understanding of intergenerational relationships among Korean immigrants.

Intergenerational Support

In this study, adult daughters from an East Asian culture (South Korea: N = 398) and a western culture (Germany: N = 313) were compared with respect to the extent and the direction of intergenerational support, the associations between value orientations, relationship quality and intergenerational support, and with respect to the meaning of perceived reciprocity within these processes. Results showed a more extensive exchange of support in the Korean as compared to the German sample and very similar associations between values and relationship quality with support to parents in both cultures. However, in the German sample a negative association between adult daughters’ perception of giving more than receiving and the quality of the relationship was indicated. The results are discussed in light of the Confucian concept of filial piety and the western theoretical model of intergenerational solidarity.