Intercollegiate Athletic Departments Research Articles

The New Normal

Over the past two years, sport organizations worldwide have had to adapt traditional operating procedures regarding employee health and well-being as a response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Among these has been the implementation of remote work as an integral part of organizational structure. Through a review of the general literature regarding remote work, this paper presents an argument for the adoption of remote work as part of the standard operating practices of intercollegiate athletic departments. Specifically, organizational control theory provides a lens through which college athletic organizations can implement remote work and maintain a level of organizational effectiveness by utilizing the management of communication and trust. By extending scholarship on organizational control theory within sport management, the utilization of the organizational controls will allow athletic department leadership to modernize their departments while gaining competitive advantage.

A Conceptual Model of the Emergence of Diversity and Inclusion Officers in Division I Collegiate Athletics

In recent years, Division I athletic departments have adopted athletic administrators of diversity and inclusion. These inaugural actors hold distinct titles, but the essence of their position mirror Chief Diversity Officers (CDOs) in higher education and business domains. The purpose of this manuscript is to offer a conceptual model that explores why intercollegiate athletic departments have adopted these positions and why these positions will continue to increase in adoption. The emergence of these roles occurs on the backdrop of prominent social movements in the United States (U.S.) and high-profile intercollegiate sport scandals while also aligning with contemporary trends in higher education institution. Implications for policy and practice are discussed.

The transition experiences of division I and III collegiate athletes

Athletic transition has been explored in sport management and sport psychology literature primarily focusing on transitioning into collegiate athletics, voluntary and involuntary transitions out of collegiate sport, and transitioning out of professional sport. This study compared NCAA Division I and III collegiate athletes’ perceptions regarding the athletic transition process. Semi-structured interviews were utilized to uncover the perceptions and experiences surrounding the transition process into, during, and out of collegiate sport (Lindlof & Taylor, 2019; Schlossberg, 1981). Three themes emerged from the data: Moving In: Compatability, Moving Through: Identity Directly Tied to Sport, and Moving Out: Redefining Oneself. More specifically, the participants explained coaches and proximity to home helped foster a sense of compatability in institution choice. All of the participants believed sport was important to their lives and tied to their current identity. Lastly, participants detailed the upcoming transition out of sport was either an opportunity for growth or accompanied with uncertainty and sadness surrounding this significant life change. These findings highlight the responsibility of intercollegiate athletic departments and institutions to provide assistance in these transitional processes through coach, administrator, and athlete education and programming.

Defining the Role of the Director of Basketball Operations. An Investigation of Role Ambiguity within Intercollegiate Athletic Departments

Defining the Role of the Director of Basketball Operations. An Investigation of Role Ambiguity within Intercollegiate Athletic Departments

Division I Athletic Director Trends and Perceptions of Requisite Professional Skills

Abstract The focus of this study was to understand perceptions of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I athletic director (ADs) skills and experiences and their relative importance to their current position. Division I ADs hold the highest position of authority in intercollegiate athletic departments at the highest level of competition in the NCAA (Swift, 2011). What once was seen as a job for retired coaches, has now transformed into a role that attracts some of the top executives both in and outside the sports industry (Belzer, 2015). Indeed, universities have begun to resemble a corporate culture, with ADs frequently considered to be CEOs of their department and the universities they serve (Hardin, Cooper & Huffman, 2013). Since much of the research on AD career paths has employed a content analysis methodology, examining biographies of ADs to establish patterns, (e.g., Fitzgerald, Sagaria, & Nelson, 1994; Hardin et al., 2013; Lumpkin, Achen & Hyland, 2015), the current study sought to understand ADs perceptions of requisite skills and experiences by directly surveying the group. Results indicate current ADs place a high emphasis on developing skills relative to revenue generation, fundraising and development, while considering internal experiences such as working with academic services and life skills not nearly as important.

Assessing Demand for Intercollegiate Athletic Departments: An Investigation of Multimedia Rights Agreements

Traditionally, attendance has been the prevailing measure of demand in the intercollegiate athletics industry. However, new sources have emerged, including television ratings and revenue from broadcast rights fees and sponsorship agreements such as apparel and naming rights contracts. Given that U.S.-based intercollegiate athletics departments receive an estimated $500 million annually via rightsholders such as IMG College and Learfield for their multimedia rights (MMR), these rights fees have emerged as an important source of revenue. This research breaks new ground by utilizing these rights fees in a model that estimates how much each institution should receive, and identifying those who have been paid more or less than predicted. Results indicate that in many instances IMG College has overpaid for rights, while Learfield has underpaid, and that rights are predicted by the institution’s performance in men’s basketball and demand for its football program, rather than institutional or market-related factors.

Is excellence inclusive? The benefits of fostering Black female college athlete's sense of belonging

The purpose of this research note is to urge intercollegiate athletic departments and their administrators to foster a sense of belonging amongst Black female college athletes to aid in their felt membership as a college athlete and support their development as viable employment candidates in college sport. Black female college athletes’ graduation rates are on the rise; however, these being hired at dismal rates in college sport. By fostering a sense of belonging, Black female college athletes as a historically marginalized group are able to feel a sense of connectedness in the athletics and greater university environment; athletic departments commit to major organizational change that values diversity and inclusion; and through its commitment, a culture of inclusive excellence is felt by all students, faculty, staff and athletic administrators and coaches. Keywords: Black female college athletes, college sport, intercollegiate athletics, sense of belonging, diversity and inclusion, inclusive excellence

Investigation of Stadium Performance: Case of NCAA Division I Football Stadiums as Non-Sporting Event Venues

ABSTRACT Traditionally, sport facility performance has been overlooked in the scholarly literature. However, in recent years, as the sport industry has become more revenue-driven, non-game day sport facility performance has begun to receive increasing attention. In intercollegiate athletics in the United States, one way that university athletic departments have begun to generate revenue is through the utilization of football stadiums as non-sporting event venues (Lee, Kim, & Parrish, 2015). However, little research has examined how intercollegiate athletic departments strategically utilize football stadiums as non-sporting event venues. Using a mixed methods approach, including qualitative content analysis and open-ended questions, the present study assessed how National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I athletic departments utilize their football stadium as a non-sporting event venue. Results showed that more than half of NCAA Division I athletic departments provided information as to the availability of their football stadium as a non-sporting event venue. Specifically, almost 70% of Power Five schools provided such information versus only 35% of non-Power Five schools. Also, findings revealed that some athletic departments do not provide this information on their website because they either prefer to keep stadium rental information internal or they are in a transitional stage in which they are working toward providing information about using their football stadium as a non-sporting event venue in the near future. Additionally, the results demonstrate that a majority of the users of football stadiums as non-sporting event venues were from local businesses or organizations. A discussion of the implications of these findings as well as opportunities for future research conclude this study.

Athletic Ticket Pricing in the Collegiate Environment: An Agenda for Research

As pressure mounts for intercollegiate athletic departments to be more selfsufficient, administrators must respond by increasing generated revenues. Despite the importance of ticket sales in this endeavor, however, little is known about the underlying ticket pricing structures and policies used by National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) institutions. Of the limited existing scholarship focused on managerial pricing decisions in the field of sport management, only professional sports settings have been addressed. Given the unique operational differences between professional and intercollegiate sport, this paper is designed to establish a foundation from which to build future research concerning the pricing of college sport tickets. The frameworks of stakeholder theory and institutional theory are proposed to ground future study in an attempt to strengthen our understanding of the process and behavior of price setting in intercollegiate athletics.

The Role of Servant Leadership in Developing an Ethical Climate in Sport Organizations

Evaluation of leadership as a necessary component to reform sport could be critical to fostering a more ethical climate and reducing the frequency and severity of ethical improprieties within this context. However, limited research has examined the relationship between leadership and ethical climate. Servant leadership, due to its ethical component and people-centered focus, is a leadership approach that may best support development of an ethical climate. The purpose of this study was to explore the influence of servant leadership on perceptions of an ethical climate in intercollegiate athletic departments, with an examination of how trust and perceptions of organizational justice indirectly influence the relationship between servant leadership and perceptions of an ethical climate. Findings indicated that servant leadership was directly related to trust in leadership and perceptions of an ethical climate. Further, both trust in the leader and procedural justice indirectly influenced the relationship between servant leadership and ethical climate.

An Intersectional Analysis of the Workplace Experiences of African American Female Athletic Directors

Using intersectionality theory as a lens, the present study investigated the organizational experiences of African American women athletic directors. We use data collected from face-to-face interviews with ten African American women athletic directors of NCAA Division I, II, and III U.S. intercollegiate athletic departments. Findings of our investigation reveal that the intersection of their race and gender identities, in conjunction with societal and occupational stereotypes, resulted in many of them working in environments where they faced constant challenges to their identity and authority in response to social and occupational stereotypes, misperceptions concerning their leadership roles, and perceptions that their hiring is more a result of their demographics than of their qualifications. We highlight the importance of recognizing how stereotypes intersect to produce differential experiences, and we seek to increase awareness of how implicit stereotyping influences the thoughts and behaviors of African American women athletic directors and also the individuals interacting with them. Our findings have implications for the well-being, recruitment and retention of African American women in leadership positions.

Activity Based Costing in Intercollegiate Athletic Departments: Is There Value in Using It?

The unstable financial landscape of intercollegiate athletics is an issue that many institutions struggle with on a yearly basis. Most research in this area has focused on financial inequalities (Lawrence, 2013; Zimbalist, 2013). Specifically, Lawrence (2010) has proposed a solution that the NCAA and its members consider adopting the Activity-Based Costing (ABC) management tool to manage the financial information accumulated by athletic departments, which they believe would help make costs more transparent. Athletic administrators of NCAA institutions are unclear about the broad financial inequities issues in intercollegiate athletics and the athletic accounting practices of their institutions. Given that Lawrence, Gabriel and Tuttle (2010) and Lawrence (2013) offer a solution to the problem by implementing ABC, it is unknown what athletic administrators think about this possibility. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to ask NCAA athletic administrators their perspectives on NCAA accounting practices. Specifically whether or not their athletic department uses ABC to help them understanding their costs and then to determine why or why they do not use ABC. Our results demonstrate that most athletic departments do not use ABC and the main reason they do not is that they don’t need the detailed information that ABC would provide. This paper helps to us get a better understanding of what athletic departments are doing to understand their costs and it helps to refute prior research claims that ABC would be useful for athletic departments.

Motivation, Satisfaction, and Retention of Sport Management Student Volunteers

Sport management programs often partner with intercollegiate athletic departments or community sport organizations to provide student volunteers. Motivating, satisfying, and retaining the student population may constitute a challenge for academic program stakeholders. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between motivation, satisfaction, and retention of volunteers at undergraduate sport management programs. Three hundred and twenty-two undergraduate students from five Midwestern institutions completed a 46-item questionnaire assessing their volunteer motivation, satisfaction, and retention. Results indicated students were predominantly motivated to volunteer by Love of Sport and Career motivation factors. Career, Social, Understanding, and Enhancement motivations significantly aided in predicting satisfaction, while Career, Social, and satisfaction significantly predicted retention. Implications for sport management academic programs and directions for future research are discussed.

An Exploration of Organizational Trust in Intercollegiate Athletic Departments

Scholars in in educational leadership, business management, and organizational psychology have thoroughly explored the construct of organizational trust. While trust has attracted some attention from sport management scholars, the research has primarily focused on the individual, rather than organization. This manuscript provides an overview of the organizational trust literature with specific application to the area of intercollegiate athletic departments. Additionally, the Athletic Department Trust Scale (ADTS) is introduced as an instrument to measure organizational trust in the setting. The procedures taken to refine and test the instrument are summarized. Results revealed the ADTS as psychometrically sound. The instrument was used to explore three research questions related to coaching tenure and status. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) revealed significant differences between coaching tenure and organizational trust. Practical and research implications are also presented.

Masters of Sport: Graduate School Pathways of Aspiring Intercollegiate Athletics Professionals

Intercollegiate athletic departments are complex organizations in need of individuals with specialized training and experience—credentials that aspiring practitioners have increasingly sought through graduate education. Despite the growing prevalence of graduate credentials, little is known about the motivations or choice processes of those seeking an advanced degree. Focusing on individuals enrolled in intercollegiate athletics administration graduate programs, this study employed an online survey to explore students’ motivation to: (a) pursue graduate school; and (b) choose their specific program. In addition, this study explored how these program choices aligned with their career aspirations. A mixed methods approach, framed by Social Cognitive Career Theory, found that students pursue graduate education as a form of credentialing and to gain skills; respondents cited the program’s nesting in the education department as a main factor in their choice and were purposeful in pursuing graduate education as a way to advance their career. Findings shed light on a sub-population (aspiring athletics professionals) and decision-making process (graduate program choice) that are not well understood, pointing to implications for graduate programs and athletic departments alike.

Organizational Culture Mediates the Relationship between Transformational Leadership and Work Outcomes

The objectives of this study were to examine the mediating effect of group and developmental organizational culture types on the relationship between transformational leadership and three outcome variables—affective organizational commitment, turnover intentions, and job search behaviors. Senior administrators (n = 188) working in NCAA Division I intercollegiate athletic departments completed a survey assessing perceptions of leadership behavior of their athletic directors, the culture of their athletic departments, and their affective organizational commitment, turnover intentions, and job search behaviors. Results indicate that group culture partially mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and affective organizational commitment, and fully mediates turnover intentions and job search behaviors. Developmental culture partially mediates affective organizational commitment but has no influence on turnover intentions and job search behaviors. Findings contribute to the understanding of...

Organizational Culture Mediates the Relationship between Transformational Leadership and Work Outcomes

The objectives of this study were to examine the mediating effect of group and developmental organizational culture types on the relationship between transformational leadership and three outcome variables—affective organizational commitment, turnover intentions, and job search behaviors. Senior administrators (n = 188) working in NCAA Division I intercollegiate athletic departments completed a survey assessing perceptions of leadership behavior of their athletic directors, the culture of their athletic departments, and their affective organizational commitment, turnover intentions, and job search behaviors. Results indicate that group culture partially mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and affective organizational commitment, and fully mediates turnover intentions and job search behaviors. Developmental culture partially mediates affective organizational commitment but has no influence on turnover intentions and job search behaviors. Findings contribute to the understanding of the important mediating role of organizational culture on the relationship between transformational leadership and outcome variables in the intercollegiate athletics context.

The Effects of the Economic Model of College Sport on Athlete Educational Experience

The purpose of this paper1 is to offer an overview of how the current economic model prevalent in intercollegiate sport affects the athlete experience. The author outlines the multiple problems facing intercollegiate athletic departments as they seek to finance their activities and concludes by suggesting that financial stability requires recognizing the overall financial problems of higher education which form the context for athletic financing.

Patterns of Bureaucracy in Intercollegiate Athletic Departments

The objective of the current research was to verify the extent to which Gouldner’s (1954) three patterns of bureaucracy were prevalent in intercollegiate athletic departments. Single and multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) of the data provided by 907 coaches from all three NCAA divisions (ndivI = 322; ndivII = 277; ndivIII = 308) showed that structural relationships among goals, processes, and patterns of bureaucracy were invariant among all three groups of coaches. Substantively, the factor of developmental goals through developmental processes (Trail & Chelladurai, 2000) predicted positively the presence of representative bureaucracy and punishment-centered bureaucracy and negatively the existence of mock bureaucracy. This means that the more athletic departments emphasize academic values, the less the coaches perceive a pattern of loose coupling between rules and actual technical activities. Implications of these results for theory and practice were discussed.

Fear, Anxiety, and Loss of Control: Analyzing an Athletic Department Merger as a Gendered Political Process

This study examined organizational processes involved in a merger between two gender affiliated intercollegiate athletic departments. A conceptual framework incorporating the concepts of gendered social processes, and the transition and integration stages of organizational mergers framed the study. Organizational political activity is perceived as a gendered process in merging groups. Interviews with 57 stakeholders of a university athletic department were conducted. The data analysis showed that gender politics identified in the transition stage involved stakeholders’ emotional reactions. In the integration stage, gender politics were evident during the social processes of assessing trust and loyalties, and cultural reengineering. Practical implications for merger facilitation are noted in terms of considering the necessity of merging, the hiring of outside leadership, and implementing a communication plan. Overall, our study furthers our understanding of the gender politics involved in merging gender affiliated sport organizations.