Interbirth Intervals Research Articles

Reproductive success of Bornean orangutan males: scattered in time but clustered in space

The social and mating systems of orangutans, one of our closest relatives, remain poorly understood. Orangutans (Pongo spp.) are highly sexually dimorphic and females are philopatric and maintain individual, but overlapping home ranges, whereas males disperse, are non-territorial and wide-ranging, and show bimaturism, with many years between reaching sexual maturity and attaining full secondary sexual characteristics (including cheek pads (flanges) and emitting long calls). We report on 21 assigned paternities, among 35 flanged and 15 unflanged, genotyped male Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii), studied from 2003 to 2018 in Tuanan (Central Kalimantan, Indonesia). All 10 infants born since mid-2003 with an already identified sire were sired by flanged males. All adult males ranged well beyond the study area (c. 1000 ha), and their dominance relations fluctuated even within short periods. However, 5 of the 10 identified sires had multiple offspring within the monitored area. Several sired over a period of c. 10 years, which overlapped with siring periods of other males. The long-calling behavior of sires indicated they were not consistently dominant over other males in the area around the time of known conceptions. Instead, when they were seen in the area, the known sires spent most of their time within the home ranges of the females whose offspring they sired. Overall, successful sires were older and more often resident than others.Significance statementIt is difficult to assess reproductive success for individuals of long-lived species, especially for dispersing males, who cannot be monitored throughout their lives. Due to extremely long interbirth intervals, orangutans have highly male-skewed operational sex ratios and thus intensive male-male competition for every conception. Paternity analyses matched 21 immature Bornean orangutans with their most likely sire (only 10 of 50 genotyped males) in a natural population. Half of these identified sires had multiple offspring in the study area spread over periods of at least 10 years, despite frequently ranging outside this area. Dominance was a poor predictor of success, but, consistent with female mating tactics to reduce the risk of infanticide, known “sires” tended to have relatively high local presence, which seems to contribute to the males’ siring success. The results highlight the importance of large protected areas to enable a natural pattern of dispersal and ranging.

Timing of conceptions in Phayre's leaf monkeys: Energy and phytochemical intake.

Raising offspring imposes energetic costs, especially for female mammals. Consequently, seasons favoring high energy intake and sustained positive energy balance often result in a conception peak. Factors that may weaken this coordinated effect include premature offspring loss and adolescent subfertility. Furthermore, seasonal ingestion of phytochemicals may facilitate conception peaks. We examined these factors and potential benefits of a conception peak (infant survival and interbirth interval) in Phayre's leaf monkeys (Trachypithecus phayrei crepusculus). Data were collected at Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand (78 conceptions). We estimated periods of high energy intake based on fruit and young leaf feeding and via monthly energy intake rates. Phytochemical intake was based on fecal progestin. We examined seasonality (circular statistics and cox proportional hazard models) and compared consequences of timing (infant survival and interbirth intervals, t-test, and Fisher exact test). Conceptions occurred in all months but peaked from May to August. This peak coincided with high fecal progestin rather than presumed positive energy balance. Primipara conceived significantly later than multipara. Neither infant survival nor interbirth intervals were related to the timing of conception. Periods of high energy intake may not exist and would not explain the conception peak in this population. However, the presumed high intake of phytochemicals was tightly linked to the conception peak. Timing conceptions to the peak season did not provide benefits, suggesting that the clustering of conceptions may be a mere by-product of phytochemical intake. To confirm this conclusion, seasonal changes in phytochemical intake and hormone levels need to be studied more directly.

37 Precision Feeding of Prolific Sheep in Highly Productive Management Systems

Abstract Globally lamb production is constrained by seasonal reproduction and flock productivity. There is potential to reduce both with improved reproductive and nutritional management in systems with a reduced interbirth interval. These accelerated systems can improve productivity >2 times compared with conventional systems. Successful adoption of these systems has been hampered; however, by low and variable reproductive efficiency during the suboptimal breeding period (February to July). We designed a series of studies to address this problem using an 8-month birth interval system with Polled Dorset x Polypay ewes without the use of exogenous hormone or photoperiod therapies. In study 1, we examined prebreeding nutrition combined with the male effect on reproductive outcomes in both long (April/May) and short-day (Dec./Jan.) breeding seasons. Ewes were randomly allocated to one of 3 nutritional treatments after weaning during a 21-day prebreeding period: 50%, 100% or 200% of maintenance energy intake. Ewes were exposed to vasectomized rams the last 14 days of treatment followed immediately with fertile rams for a 34-day breeding period (22 to 27 ewes per vasectomized or fertile ram). Both litter size (1.60 short vs. 1.34 long) and conception (96% short vs. 86% long) were greater in the short season (P < 0.001). Nutrition did not impact conception in either season; however, litter size was increased 15% in long and 25% in short day breeding season in ewes fed 200% compared the other treatments. These results suggest that litter size can be improved in these systems regardless of season by elevating energy intake above current recommendations. In study 2, we examined the impact of energy status during 2 preconception periods: lactation (last 30 days of previous lactation) and flushing (21 days pre-breeding plus 34-day breeding period). During lactation ewes received either 70% (L), 100% (C), and 150% (H) of energy requirements according to litter size. During flushing, ewes received 70%, 100% and 160% of maintenance energy with reproductive management as for study 1. Blood samples collected every 3 to 4 days were analyzed for plasma progesterone concentration via radioimmunoassay. Season had a great impact on return to estrus with 18% of ewes exhibiting luteal phases before teaser ram introduction during long as compared with 99% during short-day season. Nutrition during lactation also impacted return to estrus but only in long days with 40% of ewes on the H diet exhibiting luteal phases compared with 14% on the L diet before teaser ram introduction. Collectively, this indicates that an increased rate on conception is possible without the use of exogenous hormones or photoperiod manipulation in accelerated systems. Furthermore, a high plane of preconception nutrition improves litter size regardless of season and may hasten return to estrus during the suboptimal breeding period.

Preferred and Actual Interbirth Intervals in Women With Multiple-Partner Fertility

Mothers with multiple-partner fertility have longer interbirth intervals (IBIs) than mothers with single-partner fertility, suggesting that partner change hinders achieving the preferred IBI. Previous studies have, however, overlooked possible differences in preferred IBI between these two groups. Using data from 724 Finnish mothers, we investigated how partner change between the first and second child moderated the association between actual and preferred IBI. Mothers with multiple-partner fertility had 54 months longer IBIs than mothers with single-partner fertility. The association between actual and preferred IBI was weaker in mothers with multiple-partner fertility. Our results further indicated that this difference could partly be explained by the mothers’ deliberate actions, such as contraceptive use and abortions among mothers with multi-partner fertility. Family planning support could gain from mapping out the reasons among women with a partner change for postponing otherwise desired pregnancies and offering increased support in these areas.

Determinants of maternal mortality in south-western Nigeria: Midwives’ perceptions

BackgroundMaternal mortality remains one of Nigeria's most significant public health challenges. In order to address this issue sustainably, it is necessary to consider the perceptions of all stakeholders involved, including midwives. ObjectivesTo examine the determinants of maternal mortality in south-western Nigeria from the midwife's perspective. DesignA cross-sectional study was employed using mixed methods with a semi-structured questionnaire and an in-depth interview guide. ParticipantsQuantitative data were obtained from 215 midwives using a convenience sampling technique. Qualitative data were obtained from 25 midwives from five government health centres, selected using a stratified sampling technique. MethodsQuantitative data were analysed using SPSS Version 20 using descriptive and inferential statistics with 95 % confidence intervals, while qualitative data were analysed using thematic analyses. FindingsThe mean age and work experience of the participants were 35.2 ± 9.3 years and 8.4 ± 7.0 years, respectively. The midwives perceived that the main determinants of maternal mortality were postpartum haemorrhage (86.5 %), hypertensive disorder in pregnancy (80.9 %), mismanagement at mission homes/traditional birth attendant centres (MH/TBAs) (79.1 %) and sepsis (70.1 %). Some of the priority target areas to improve the well-being of pregnant women as identified by the midwives, were increased awareness of pregnancy danger signs (97 %), destigmatising caesarean section (CS) (96 %), regulation of MH/TBAs (92 %), and increased accessibility of hospitals (84 %). Findings from the qualitative data also affirmed that regulating MH/TBAs, destigmatising CS and subsidising healthcare expenses were prerequisites to curbing maternal mortality. Inferential analysis revealed that determinants such as unsafe abortion (p < 0.001), ectopic pregnancy (p = 0.001), domestic violence (p = 0.023), malaria (p = 0.029), short interbirth interval (p = 0.03), and patients’ negative perceptions of CS delivery (p = 0.036) were more commonly perceived to be associated with maternal mortality by younger midwives (age 17–34 years) compared with older midwives. Key conclusionThe results indicate that resolving the maternal mortality crisis sustainably in Nigeria will require increased accessibility to basic health care and health promotion campaigns to counteract unhelpful sociocultural norms. Implications for practiceFuture interventions must be tailored to address both traditional and emerging causes of maternal mortality in southwestern Nigeria.

Socio-demographic and antenatal care-related factors associated with early post-partum family planning use in Ethiopia: evidence from Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey 2016 data.

Initiation of family planning in the early post-partum period is a strategic move to reduce maternal, neonatal, and child mortality due to the negative consequences of short interbirth interval and the complications of unintended pregnancy. Antenatal care (ANC) is the noteworthy predictor of scaling up early initiation of post-partum family planning (PPFP) and preventing unintended pregnancy before menses resume. Despite the great role of ANC, information is scant about the effect of content, timing, and the number of ANC visits on the early initiation of PPFP in Ethiopia. This study aimed to assess the association of ANC services with the early initiation of PPFP in Ethiopia. The study was based on Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey 2016 data, which was a cross-sectional survey from 18 January 2016 to 27 June 2016. A total weighted sample size of 2,920 post-partum women was included. A multilevel logistic regression model was used because of the hierarchical data, and variables with a p-value of ≤0.2 in the bivariable multilevel analysis were taken to multivariable multilevel analysis. An adjusted odds ratio with a 95% confidence interval (CI) was used to declare both the direction and strength of the association, and variables with a p-value of <0.05 were considered as statistically significant for the outcome variable. The early initiation of PPFP was 20.4%. Women with at least four ANC visits [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 1.31; CI 1.12-2.32], women who started ANC within the first trimester (AOR = 1.25; CI 1.10-2.23), complete routine ANC (AOR = 1.11; CI 1.01-2.03), post-natal care (AOR = 1.45; CI 1.19-1.87), resumption of menses (AOR = 1.67; CI 1.18-1.93), urban residency (AOR = 2.14; CI 1.18-2.51), and high community women's education (AOR = 1.71; CI 1.51-2.11) were variables significantly associated with the early initiation of PPFP. The early initiation of PPFP in Ethiopia was very low. Attention needs to be given to the quality of ANC, post-natal care, resumption of menses, residency, and community-level education of women to increase the prevalence of the early initiation of PPFP in Ethiopia. Therefore, the government should design a program targeting the quality of ANC in rural communities, considering women without menses and scaling up the education of women at the community level to the culture of the early initiation of PPFP in order to achieve reduced maternal, neonatal, and child mortality.

Apolipoprotein-ε4 is associated with higher fecundity in a natural fertility population.

In many populations, the apolipoprotein-ε4 (APOE-ε4) allele increases the risk for several chronic diseases of aging, including dementia and cardiovascular disease; despite these harmful effects at later ages, the APOE-ε4 allele remains prevalent. We assess the impact of APOE-ε4 on fertility and its proximate determinants (age at first reproduction, interbirth interval) among the Tsimane, a natural fertility population of forager-horticulturalists. Among 795 women aged 13 to 90 (20% APOE-ε4 carriers), those with at least one APOE-ε4 allele had 0.3 to 0.5 more children than (ε3/ε3) homozygotes, while those with two APOE-ε4 alleles gave birth to 1.4 to 2.1 more children. APOE-ε4 carriers achieve higher fertility by beginning reproduction 0.8 years earlier and having a 0.23-year shorter interbirth interval. Our findings add to a growing body of literature suggesting a need for studies of populations living in ancestrally relevant environments to assess how alleles that are deleterious in sedentary urban environments may have been maintained by selection throughout human evolutionary history.

Using ecotourism boats for estimating the abundance of a bottlenose dolphin population in south-eastern Australia.

It is challenging to collect robust, long-term datasets to properly monitor the viability and social structure of large, long-lived animals, especially marine mammals. The present study used a unique long-term dataset to investigate the population parameters and social structure of a poorly studied population of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops sp.) in southern Port Phillip Bay, south-eastern Australia. Photo-identification images have been collected between 2012-2022 both opportunistically and following a protocol by patrons, staff, and volunteers of ecotourism companies using their vessels as platforms. The resulting large dataset was available to be processed through the online platform Flukebook and used in capture recapture models to estimate abundance and demographic parameters. In addition, the social structure of the population and the reproductive parameters were investigated. The marked adult population abundance (45.2 ± 2.7 individuals) was found to be stable over the last decade and the calving rate ranged between 0.06-0.19 new calves per identified individuals per year, while the inter-birth interval was 3.7 ± 0.8 years. Social analysis suggested the population has a fission-fusion structure with no apparent clusters. The stability of the population over the study period suggests no deleterious effect of anthropogenic or environmental factors during the last decade. This study is the outcome of the effort of the ecotourism organisations and the results obtained, along with their similarity to those of other dolphin populations worldwide, highlight the importance of such data sources for long-term information that would otherwise be too expensive or logistically difficult to obtain.

Comparative life history patterns of female gorillas.

Several theories have been proposed to explain the impact of ecological conditions on differences in life history variables within and between species. Here we compare female life history parameters of one western lowland gorilla population (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and two mountain gorilla populations (Gorilla beringei beringei). We compared the age of natal dispersal, age of first birth, interbirth interval, and birth rates using long-term demographic datasets from Mbeli Bai (western gorillas), Bwindi Impenetrable National Park and the Virunga Massif (mountain gorillas). The Mbeli western gorillas had the latest age at first birth, longest interbirth interval, and slowest surviving birth rate compared to the Virunga mountain gorillas. Bwindi mountain gorillas were intermediate in their life history patterns. These patterns are consistent with differences in feeding ecology across sites. However, it is not possible to determine the evolutionary mechanisms responsible for these differences, whether a consequence of genetic adaptation to fluctuating food supplies ("ecological risk aversion hypothesis") or phenotypic plasticity in response to the abundance of food ("energy balance hypothesis"). Our results do not seem consistent with the extrinsic mortality risks at each site, but current conditions for mountain gorillas are unlikely to match their evolutionary history. Not all traits fell along the expected fast-slow continuum, which illustrates that they can vary independently from each other ("modularity model"). Thus, the life history traits of each gorilla population may reflect a complex interplay of multiple ecological influences that are operating through both genetic adaptations and phenotypic plasticity.

Estimates of life history parameters in a high latitude, arid-country vervet monkey population.

We present data on life history parameters from a long-term study of vervet monkeys in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Estimates are presented of age at first conception for females and age at natal dispersal for males, along with the probability of survival to adulthood for infants born during the study, female reproductive life-span, reproductive output (including lifetime reproductive success for a subset of females), and inter-birth interval (IBI) duration. We also assess the effect of maternal age and infant survival on length of IBI. We then go on to compare life history parameters for our population with those from two East African populations in Kenya (Amboseli and Laikipia). We find there is broad consensus across the three populations, although mean infant survival was considerably lower for the two East African sites. Such comparisons must be made cautiously, however, as local ecology across the duration of the studies obviously has an impact on the estimates obtained. With this caveat in place, we consider that the concordance between values is sufficient to enable the values reported here to be used in comparative studies of primate life history, although data from habitats with higher rainfall and lower levels of seasonality are needed, and the results presented here should not be seen as canonical.

Investigating the Relationship Between Body Shape and Life History Traits in Toothed Whales: Can Body Shape Predict Fast-Slow Life Histories?

A widespread pattern in vertebrate life-history evolution is for species to evolve towards either fast or slow life histories; however, the underlying causes of this pattern remain unclear. Toothed whales (Odontoceti) are a diverse group with a range of body sizes and life histories, making them an ideal model to investigate potential drivers of this dichotomy. Using ancestral reconstruction, we identified that certain groups of odontocetes evolved more-streamlined, presumably faster, body shapes around the same time that killer whales (Orcinus orca) evolved into whale predators approximately 1 Mya during the Pleistocene. This suggests that the evolution of a streamlined body shape may have been an adaptation to escape killer whale predation, leading to longer life-history events. To test this hypothesis, we performed a cluster analysis of odontocete whales and confirmed the dual pattern of life-history traits, with one group referred to as ‘reproducers’ characterized by early age of maturity, short gestation, short interbirth interval, and short lifespan, and the other group referred to as ‘bet-hedgers’ exhibiting the opposite pattern. However, we found that life history grouping was relatively unrelated to whale shape (i.e., more streamlined or less streamlined). Therefore, we incorporated principal component results into mixed effects models, and the model results indicated that body shape was positively related to neonate length (a measure of investment in progeny), but not significantly related to the temporal life-history traits. Thus, whale body shape is not a sufficient explanation for the evolution of fast-slow life histories in odontocete whales.

Interbirth Intervals of Immigrant and Refugee Women in the United States: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Despite guidelines recommending an interval of at least 18-24 months between a live birth and the conception of the next pregnancy, nearly one-third of pregnancies in the United States are conceived within 18 months of a previous live birth. The purpose of this study was to examine the associations between multiple immigration-related variables and interbirth intervals among reproductive-aged immigrant and refugee women living in the United States. This was a cross-sectional, quantitative study on the sexual and reproductive health (SRH) of reproductive-aged immigrant and refugee women in the United States. The data were collected via an online survey administered by Lucid LLC. We included data on women who had complete information on nativity and birth history in the descriptive analysis (n = 653). The exposure variables were immigration pathway, length of time since immigration, and country/region of birth. The outcome variable was interbirth interval (≤18, 19-35, or ≥36 months). We used multivariable ordinal logistic regression, adjusted for confounders, to determine the factors associated with having a longer interbirth interval among women with second- or higher-order births (n = 245). Approximately 37.4% of study participants had a short interbirth interval. Women who immigrated to the United States for educational (aOR = 4.57; 95% CI, 1.57-9.58) or employment opportunities (aOR = 2.27; 95% CI, 1.07-5.31) had higher odds of reporting a longer interbirth interval (19-35 or ≥36 months) than women born in the United States. Women born in an African country had 0.79 times the odds (aOR = 0.79; 95% CI, 0.02-0.98) of being in a higher category of interbirth interval. Although all birthing women should be counseled on optimal birth spacing through the use of postpartum contraception, immigrant and refugee women would benefit from further research and policy and program interventions to help them in achieving optimal birth spacing. SRH research in African immigrant and refugee communities is especially important for identifying ameliorable factors for improving birth spacing.

Abundance and demographic parameters of humpback whales from the Gulf of Maine, and stock definition relative to the Scotian Shelf

The Gulf of Maine is one of the principal summer feeding grounds for humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in the North Atlantic, and was one focus of effort in an ocean-basin-wide study known as the Years of the North Atlantic Humpback (YoNAH) project. Data from that project and from subsequent surveys were used to assess stock boundaries, abundance and demographic parameters for Gulf of Maine humpbacks. Surveys on the Scotian Shelf in the summers of 1998 and 1999 produced the first substantial dataset of identified individual humpbacks observed in this region, which lies between the well-studied areas of the Gulf of Maine and Newfoundland. The results gave a match rate of approximately 27% (14 of 52 individuals) between the Scotian Shelf and the Gulf of Maine, with evidence that many of the matched whales were transient in the Gulf of Maine; there were no matches to any other location in the North Atlantic. These data suggest that the range of most whales from the Gulf of Maine usually does not extend as far east as the Scotian Shelf or Newfoundland. Only one whale was observed on the Scotian Shelf in both the 1998 and 1999 surveys, and another seen in 1998 had also been sighted there in 1994. This low inter-annual match rate suggests that the abundance of humpback whales on the Scotian Shelf is larger than previously recognised. Three different but overlapping estimates of abundance for the Gulf of Maine population were calculated. Mark-recapture data from 1992/93 gave an estimate of abundance of 652 (CV = 0.29); however, this estimate is likely biased because of heterogeneity in sampling and in animal distribution. Photo-id data also provided a minimum population estimate of 497 humpbacks known to be alive in 1997; this estimate is also likely to be negatively biased because of heterogeneity. Finally, line-transect surveys conducted in 1999 yielded estimates of 816 (CV = 0.45) or 902 humpback whales (CV = 0.41, including a portion of the eastern Scotian Shelf stratum); these transect-based estimates are more consistent with the number of humpbacks (1,273, including dead animals) in the current photo-id catalogue for the Gulf of Maine. Overall, the size of the Gulf of Maine population is likely to be in the high hundreds, but no more precise estimate can be calculated at this time. The growth rate for the Gulf of Maine population was estimated using an interbirth interval method using data from 1992-2000. The estimate was either 1.00 (for a calf survival rate of 0.51) or 1.04 (for a calf survival rate of 0.875). Although confidence limits are not available (because maturation parameters could not be estimated), both estimates of population growth rate are outside the 95% confidence intervals of the previous estimate of 1.065 for the period 1979-1991 (Barlow and Clapham, 1997). It is unclear whether this apparent decline is an artefact resulting from a shift in distribution or is a real phenomenon; if the latter, it may be related to known high mortality among young-of-the-year whales in the waters of the US mid-Atlantic states. However, calf survival appears to have increased since 1996, presumably accompanied by an increase in population growth.

Population parameters, performance and insights into factors influencing the reproduction of the black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis in Namibia

AbstractEstimating the population parameters, performance and factors that influence reproduction from long-term, individual-based monitoring data is the gold standard for effective wildlife management and conservation. Yet this information is often difficult and costly to collect or inaccessible to managers. We synthesized a 20-year set of individual-based monitoring data from a subset of black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis subpopulations across a range of environmental conditions in Namibia. Our findings demonstrate that despite the relatively arid landscape in Namibia, the black rhinoceros metapopulation is performing well, measured by age at first reproduction, inter-birth interval, population growth and survivorship. Information-theoretic modelling revealed that a univariate model including normalized differential vegetative index had a greater influence upon age at first reproduction than population density. The inter-birth interval model set identified cumulative rainfall during the 15 months prior to the birth month as the top model, although the mean normalized differential vegetative index during the inter-birth interval was comparable. There was little evidence for density-dependence effects on reproduction. These findings suggest that although browse quality could have a greater impact on parameters spanning multiple years, shorter-term parameters could be more influenced by rainfall. Our analysis also revealed a synchronous pattern of conceptions occurring in the rainy season. Our study provides a set of population parameter estimates for Namibian black rhinoceros subpopulations and preliminary insights on factors driving their reproduction. These expand our collective knowledge of global black rhinoceros population dynamics and improve our confidence and capability to adaptively manage the black rhinoceros metapopulation of Namibia.

Association of Conditional Cash Transfers With Maternal Mortality Using the 100 Million Brazilian Cohort

Conditional cash transfers (CCTs) have been consistently associated with improvements to the determinants of maternal health, but there have been insufficient investigations regarding their effects on maternal mortality. To evaluate the association between being a Bolsa Família program (BFP) beneficiary and maternal mortality and to examine how this association differs by duration of BFP receipt, maternal race, living in rural or urban areas, the Municipal Human Development Index (MHDI), and municipal primary health care coverage. This cross-sectional analysis was nested within the 100 Million Brazilian Cohort. Girls and women aged 10 to 49 years (hereinafter referred to as women) who had at least 1 live birth were included, using data from Brazilian national health databases linked to the 100 Million Brazilian Cohort (January 1, 2004, to December 31, 2015). Propensity score kernel weighting was applied to control for sociodemographic and economic confounders in the association between BFP receipt and maternal mortality, overall and stratified by different subgroups (race, urban or rural area, and MHDI), and duration of BFP receipt. Data were analyzed from July 12, 2019, to December 31, 2022. Maternal death. A total of 6 677 273 women aged 10 to 49 years were included in the analysis, 4056 of whom had died from pregnancy-related causes. The risk of maternal death was 18% lower in women who received BFP (weighted odds ratio [OR], 0.82 [95% CI, 0.71-0.93]). A longer duration receiving BFP was associated with an increased reduction in maternal mortality (OR for 1-4 years, 0.85 [95% CI, 0.75-0.97]; OR for 5-8 years, 0.70 [95% CI, 0.60-0.82]; OR for ≥9 years, 0.69 [95% CI, 0.53-0.88]). Receiving BFP was also associated with substantial increases in the number of prenatal appointments and interbirth intervals. The reduction was more pronounced in the most vulnerable groups. This cross-sectional analysis nested within the 100 Million Brazilian Cohort found an association between BFP receipt and maternal mortality. This association was of greater magnitude in women with longer exposure to BFP and in the most vulnerable groups. These findings reinforce evidence that programs such as BFP, which have already proven effective in poverty reduction, have great potential to improve maternal survival.

Unveiling demographic and mating strategies of Panthera onca in the Pantanal, Brazil.

We conducted the first long-term and large-scale study of demographic characteristics and reproductive behavior in a wild jaguar (Panthera onca) population. Data were collected through a combination of direct observations and camera trapping on a study area that operates both as a cattle ranch and ecotourism destination. Jaguars exhibited two birth peaks: April/May and October/November, that are the end and the beginning of the wet season in the Pantanal, respectively. The average litter size was 1.43 ± 0.65. Single cubs made up a total of 65.7% of the births, and we found a slight predominance of females (1.15:1 ratio) in litters. The mean age at independence was 17.6 ± 0.98 months, with sex-biased dispersal, with all males (n = 27) leaving the natal home range and 63.6% of females exhibiting philopatry. The interbirth intervals were 21.8 ± 3.2 months and the mean age at first parturition was 31.8 ± 4.2 months. Our results estimated a lifetime reproductive success for female jaguars of 8.13 cubs. Our observations also indicate that female jaguars can display mating behavior during cub rearing or pregnancy, representing 41.4% of the consorts and copulations recorded. We speculate that this behavior has evolved as a defense against infanticide and physical harm to the female. To our knowledge, this is the first time that such behavior is described for this species. All aggressive interactions between females involved the presence of cubs, following the offspring-defense hypothesis, that lead to territoriality among females in mammals, regardless of food availability. In the face of growing threats to this apex predator, this work unveils several aspects of its natural history, representing a baseline for comparison with future research and providing critical information for population viability analysis and conservation planning in the long term.

Pregnancy risks and contraceptive use among postpartum mothers in Cameroon: implications for improving the coverage of postpartum family planning services

BackgroundThe health hazards of short inter-birth intervals are severe in Cameroon. One-quarter of inter-birth intervals are less than 24 months and the probability of death before age 5 for children born after a short interval is double that associated with intervals of 36–47 months. We examine the risk of an unintended pregnancy in the 18 months following childbirth in Cameroon, taking into account the protective effects of lactational amenorrhea, delayed resumption of sex as well as contraceptive use.MethodsData from 3007 postpartum women in the nationally representative 2018 Cameroon Demographic and Health Survey were used. Risk of an unintended pregnancy was defined from current status information on resumption of sex and menses, contraceptive use, desire for another child within 12 months, and, for the minority of pregnant women, whether the conception was intended. Predictors of risk, and of modern method use, were assessed by bivariate and multivariate analysis.ResultsIn the first 6 postpartum months, only 8% of women were fully at risk (i.e., sex and menses resumed but no contraceptive use), rising to 24% at 6–11 postpartum months, and further to 30% at months 12–17. Though 89% wanted to delay the next birth by at least 1 year, only 17% were currently using a modern method. Menstruating women were much more likely to be users than amenorrheic women: 27% versus 15% at months 12–17 postpartum. Urban and better educated women recorded higher contraceptive use but lower protection from other factors than rural, less educated women, with the net result that risk differed little across these population strata. Uptake of maternal and child health (MCH) services was high but only one-third of women had discussed family planning at a facility visit during the preceding 12 months.ConclusionsThese results underscore the need for improved postpartum family planning services by means of closer integration with mainstream health services. In view of evidence from other sources of heavy workload and weak motivation of health staff, this will require strong leadership. A related priority is to increase the number of staff trained in provision of long-acting methods, such as implants.

Decomposing the gap in undernutrition among under-five children between EAG and non-EAG states of India

In India, the Empowered Action Group (EAG) states (Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Odisha, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh, including Assam) have a higher prevalence of undernutrition among children under the age of five (U5) than non-EAG states. However, no research has attempted to explain the difference in U5 child undernutrition between EAG and non-EAG states. To fill this gap, this study used data from the fourth round of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4) and applied modified Blinder–Oaxaca decomposition (also known as Fairlie decomposition). This decomposition helps quantify the relative contribution of various factors explaining the gap between EAG and non-EAG states in U5 child undernutrition. In EAG states, nearly four out of ten U5 children suffered from being underweight and stunted, and one out of five suffered from wasting. The prevalence of undernutrition was relatively higher in the EAG states than in the non-EAG states. The decomposition results revealed that almost two-thirds of the gap in U5 undernutrition between EAG and Non-EAG states was explained by the variables used in the analysis. Household wealth explained about half the difference in stunting and wasting, while religion accounted for a quarter of the difference in underweight and wasting. Maternal education explained a fourth of the difference in stunting between EAG and Non-EAG states. The disparity in undernutrition between EAG and non-EAG states could be reduced by introducing suitable long- and short-term interventions and programs. Increasing access to the public distribution system (PDS), raising awareness among low-income mothers regarding optimal inter-birth intervals, proper health and hygiene, appropriate family planning, and the importance of maternal and child health care services by frontline workers (ASHAs, Anganwadi workers, etc.) could be some of the ways to bridge the gap in undernutrition between EAG and non-EAG states in the near future.

The Varying Fertilities of the Amish Groups of Holmes County, Ohio

The Amish are known for their high fertility, and one of the groups, the Swartzentruber Amish, is known for its exceptionally large families. Opinions vary about the number, but there are many distinct Amish affiliations in the Holmes County, Ohio, area, ranging from the progressive New Order Amish to the ultraconservative Swartzentruber Amish. In this study, fertility was calculated for the five groups large enough for such analysis. The fertilities (i.e., number of live births for women 45 years and over) were notably congruent with the degree of conservatism (from progressive to conservative): New Order, 5.76; Old Order, 6.09; Dan or Andy Weaver, 7.79; Hostetler, 8.68; Swartzentruber, 10.42. The families of the Old Order group (the only group large enough) were subdivided into farming and nonfarming subgroups and families of ministers and families of laymen for fertility comparisons. The farming families subgroup had a higher fertility rate (6.88) than the nonfarming subgroup (5.90), presumably because their labor-intensive work of farming begs for large families. The ministers’ family subgroup also had a higher fertility (6.54) than the laymen’s family subgroup (5.89), the difference being attributed to ministers having a deeper religious commitment than laymen. The interval between marriage and first birth was nearly the same for all five groups. For the Swartzentruber Amish, the interbirth intervals remained short throughout the reproductive span, but for the other four groups, they became progressively longer. The reproductive span of women in the New Order Amish group was 13.75 years. It was progressively longer for the more conservative groups and was longest (17.74 years) for Swartzentruber Amish. These results are consistent with other studies that showed that people with more intense religious practice have larger families than people whose religious practice is less intense.

BARRED OWL PREDATION OF WESTERN SPOTTED SKUNKS

The potential for trophic cascades triggered by recent range expansion of the Barred Owl (Strix varia) to the Pacific Northwest has caused concern among conservationists and managers. Barred Owl predation of small forest carnivores is a particular concern because these carnivores typically have low population growth rates relative to their body size owing to long interbirth intervals, which may result in sensitivity to increased mortality. The Western Spotted Skunk (Spilogale gracilis) is a common small carnivore in forests of the Pacific Northwest that may be a prey item for Barred Owls, and previous research suggests that avian predation can be a primary cause of mortality for congeneric spotted skunks (Spilogale spp.). We report a confirmed predation event of a Western Spotted Skunk by a Barred Owl and 3 additional predation events that we suspect were due to Barred Owls based on circumstantial evidence. During a Western Spotted Skunk research study, we recovered the radio collar of an adult male skunk from the top of a tall snag and located intestines and avian feces at the base of this snag. DNA metabarcoding revealed that the avian feces contained Western Spotted Skunk and Barred Owl DNA. Barred Owls are a novel predator of the Western Spotted Skunk in forests of the Pacific Northwest and may have both direct and indirect negative impacts on Western Spotted Skunk populations.