Interaction Of Modality Research Articles

PSX-4 Effect of Course Modality and Major in an Animal Science Course Without a Laboratory on Course Content Mastery

Abstract The global pandemic forced many college courses into on-line modality and animal science (ANSC) departments were greatly affected by this change. The success of student content mastery was questioned. Animal science laboratory time may not be effectively replicated on-line but what about courses with no lab? Previous data in non-ANSC disciplines have indicated that student centered on-line learning can be just as effective as face-to-face courses regarding content mastery. It was hypothesized that to help meet the needs of a growing student population, some ANSC courses could increase their enrollment by offering on-line sections in conjunction with face-to-face modalities. However, a retrospective analysis of modality differences would need to be evaluated to determine equitability of student opportunities and outcomes between online and face-to-face sections of an ANSC course. Therefore, the objective was to critically evaluate the student content mastery of a core ANSC course offered both on-line and face-to-face across several terms. The Principles of Nutrition course at Texas Tech University, a non-lab associated junior-level core ANSC course, was selected for analysis. Course content exams and instructor of record were not changed for 9 semesters (Fall, Spring, and Summer) beginning in the Spring of 2019 and ending in Fall of 2022. Spring 2020 data were excluded. Students were filtered for drops, failures, and upper-class status to include 629 data points across 5 on-line sections (n = 225) and 5 face-to-face sections (n = 404). Content mastery was interpreted and measured as the mean percentage of four regular exams for each term. Content mastery was analyzed in a RCBD where modality was a fixed factor, major was block (ANSC or non-ANSC), and term was a random effect. Mean course mastery was 85.4 ± 9.1 %. There was no interaction of modality or major (P = 0.28). Modality did not affect student content mastery of the course (P = 0.45). Block was significant where ANSC majors had less (P = 0.03) content mastery than non-ANSC majors (85.1 vs. 87.4%, respectively), although still within the same letter grade of B. These results are consistent with those of other disciplines; interpreted to mean that on-line sections of non-lab associated ANSC courses may be an equitable option for ANSC students. In addition, on-line modality may be a preferred option for non-ANSC majors. An acknowledged limitation of these data set is the single course analysis and further research is needed to explore opportunities in other ANSC courses. Still these outcomes may aid in decision making when departmental classroom space is limited. In conclusion, the results of this analysis indicate that ANSC departments may prioritize their ANSC students in face-to-face modalities without negative consequences to non-ANSC majors who enroll in on-line sections.

Social Presence, Negative Emotions, and Self-Protective Behavioral Intentions of Nonsmokers in Response to Secondhand Smoking in Virtual Reality: Quasi-Experimental Design.

The application of virtual reality (VR) in health care has grown rapidly in China, where approximately half of the population is directly exposed to secondhand smoke (SHS). As VR headsets have become increasingly popular and short video platforms have incorporated 360° videos in China, new formats and opportunities for health campaigns about SHS have emerged. In a simulated environment of exposure to SHS, this study aims to explore the emotional and behavioral responses to enhanced social presence brought about by VR in contrast to flat-screen videos. It also aims to examine whether and to what extent video modality (360° video vs flat-screen video) and contextual cues (high threat vs low threat) influence psychometric and intentional variables among viewers. A total of 245 undergraduate and graduate students who were nonsmokers and from a large university in China participated in this study between October 2020 and January 2021. This study created 4 different versions of a SHS experience in a café with a 2 (360° video on a head-mounted display vs flat-screen display) × 2 (high threat vs low threat) experimental design. It developed and tested a path model examining the effects of experience modality and threat levels on social presence, emotions (anger and disgust), and eventually behavioral intentions (staying away and asking for help). We found that both video modality (P<.001) and threat level (P=.005) significantly influenced social presence, whereas the interaction of video modality and threat level did not have a statistically significant effect on social presence (P=.55). Negative emotions mediated the relationships between social presence and SHS-related self-protective behaviors. Specifically, anger positively predicted the intention to ask smokers to stop smoking through the waitress (P<.001). Disgust and fear both positively predicted the intention to stay away from the SHS environment (P<.001 for disgust; P=.002 for fear). This study explored the potential mediating mechanisms that influence individuals' responses to the risks of SHS in public areas. The results demonstrated that social presence and negative emotions are 2 important mediators that underlie the relationship between video modality and behavioral intention regarding SHS in a VR setting. These findings suggest that an immersive environment could be a better stimulator of anti-SHS emotions and behaviors than flat-screen videos.

Looking into the Russian future

The relationship between future time and future tense forms in Russian is complex. The forms traditionally attributed to the future tense in certain cases do not refer to future time. Those cases have been previously presented as an inventory not representing a plausible cognitive model and/or attributed to the sphere of modality. In this article, we suggest a data-driven approach applied to the spectrum of meanings of Russian future tense forms. We analyzed corpus data and discovered that 44% of perfective future forms and 22% of imperfective future forms do not unambiguously express future time meaning. Among the non-future time meanings that Russian future tense forms can express are Gnomic, Performative, Implicative, Hypothetical, Alternation, and Stable scenario. Furthermore, we propose that the meanings of the future tense constitute a radial category. Future time reference is the prototypical meaning of the future tense. The remaining meanings comprise extensions connected to the prototypical meaning. We describe the radial category with reference to Langacker’s (2008) model of tense and potentiality. Additionally, we explore the interaction of future tense and modality.

Оценка как источник деонтической модальности

The present article discusses various types of the interaction of deontic modality and evaluation, based on the semantic shift “good → necessary”. Our source data are constructions with German modal verbs and their Russian translation models containing an evaluative component. Evaluative lexical units appear in translation mainly in place of the German verb sollen, which expresses a deontic modality based on the idea of a “right” course of events. In the Russian translation, the emphasis shifts to ‘good’, and the meaning ‘should’ is present in the form of an implicature, more or less conventionalized; that is why modal words can be translated by evaluative ones. We also consider the mechanisms of semantic derivation that ensure the appearance of units with evaluative semantics in translation in place of other modal verbs.

The Montreal Experience: A Retrospective Study Part I—Basic Principles and Treatment Algorithm

CONTEXT: Authors have refined myopia control strategies (MCS) from their experience treating more than 800 children who were followed at the Montreal School of Optometry Clinic (CUV). They developed a treatment algorithm known as the Montreal Experience (ME). Contrary to many other MCS, treatment modalities are selected after careful evaluation of a patient’s parameters (rate of progression, age of myopia onset, corneal parameters, pupil area), the risk factors for ocular pathology (growth charts), and taking into account the patient’s lifestyle and potential compliance. This represents a customized approach for each patient. PURPOSE: To evaluate the efficacy of MCS used following ME algorithm; the primary outcome relates to axial length progression over 24 months. METHODS: This is a retrospective study, conducted after approval of University IRB. Data were extracted from the file of each patient who: (1) consulted CUV between January 2017 and December 2018 and (2) were kept under the same MCS (same design/concentration). Clinical population is composed of 298 patients (35% Caucasian; 45% Asian; 20% others), with a median age of 11 (range 5–18). The treatment options were orthokeratology (OK-4 designs; N = 140), multifocal soft contact lenses (SMCL; 5 designs; N = 128), and low-dose atropine (LDA 0.01% to 0.25%; N = 42). RESULTS: Results are analyzed through sophisticated statistical models, designed for this purpose. At the end of a stepwise selection process that sequentially removed model terms that were not statistically significant, nine model terms remained: month, modality, the interaction of month and modality, refraction (SEQ), the interaction of SEQ and modality, gender, age, the interaction of age and month, and the interaction of age and modality. A total of 298 files were kept for analysis. Participant age varied from 9.7 to 12.5 years old. Baseline AL varied from 24.9 to 25.3 mm and SE refraction was −3.7 + 1.7 D on average. This study population was divided between Caucasian (34%), Asian (44%), and other ethnic origins (22%). Overall results indicate that results vary according to modality and months only. There is no statistical difference based on age, gender, and SEQ. All methods used were effective to slow the natural AL growth. Evolution was the lowest when using smaller treatment zones OK lenses (0.249 mm) and the highest (0.376 mm) for those treated with LDA. This OK advantage was statistically significant versus other modalities at 1 and 2 years. CONCLUSION: The Montreal Experience reveals that personalized MCS may be effective to manage myopia efficiently. It shows AL evolution comparable to the documented natural evolution of emmetropes, especially when using customized or smaller treatment zone OK lens design. Future work on other populations will confirm this tendency.

Differences in Physiological Reactions Due to a Competitive Rehabilitation Game Modality.

Interpersonal rehabilitation games, compared to single-player games, enhance motivation and intensity level. Usually, it is complicated to restrict the use of the system to pairs of impaired patients who have a similar skill level. Thus, such games must be dynamically adapted. Difficulty-adaptation algorithms are usually based only on performance parameters. In this way, the patient’s condition cannot be considered when adapting the game. Introducing physiological reactions could help to improve decision-making. However, it is difficult to control how social interaction influences physiological reactions, making it difficult to interpret physiological responses. This article aimed to explore the changes in physiological responses due to the social interaction of a competitive game modality. This pilot study involved ten unimpaired participants (five pairs). We defined different therapy sessions: (i) a session without a competitor; (ii) two sessions with a virtual competitor with different difficulty levels; (iii) a competitive game. Results showed a difference in the physiological response in the competitive mode concerning single-player mode only due to the interpersonal game modality. In addition, feedback from participants suggested that it was necessary to keep a certain difficulty level to make the activity more challenging, and therefore be more engaging and rewarding.

Impact of BMI on Adverse Events After Laparoscopic and Open Surgery for Rectal Cancer

The impact of body mass index (BMI) on outcomes after open or laparoscopic surgery for rectal cancer remains unclear. The objective of this retrospective cohort study was to examine the interaction of body mass index and surgical modality (i.e., laparoscopy versus open) with respect to short-term clinical outcomes in patients with rectal cancer. The ACS-NSQIP database (2012-2016) was reviewed for patients undergoing open or laparoscopic surgery for rectal cancer. The primary outcome was 30-day all-cause morbidity. Logistic regression and Cox proportional hazard models were used for analysis. A total of 16,145 patients were grouped into open (N=6759, 42%) and laparoscopic (N =9386, 58%) cohorts. Patients with higher BMI (p<0.001) and those undergoing open surgery (p<0.001) were at increased risk of all-cause morbidity. There was no significant change in the odds ratio of experiencing all-cause morbidity between open and laparoscopic surgery with increasing BMI (p=0.572). Median length of stay was significantly shorter in the laparoscopy group (4 days vs. 6days; p<0.001), at the cost of increased operative time (239min vs. 210 min, p<0.001). The difference in operative time between laparoscopy and open surgery did not increase with rising BMI (i.e., ∆37min vs. ∆39min at BMI 25kg/m2 vs 50kg/m2, respectively, p=0.491). BMI may not be a strong modifier for surgical approach with respect to short-term clinical outcomes in patients with obesity and rectal cancer. Laparoscopic surgery was associated with improved short-term clinical outcomes, without much change in the absolute difference in operative time compared with open surgery, even at higher BMIs.

Brand placement across media: The interaction of placement modality and frequency in film versus text

The present research employed a 2 × 2 × 2 between-subjects design to investigate the effects of brand placement modality and frequency on brand attitude in two media, namely a short film or a written text featuring the placed brand. The narrative content and placement scenes were held constant. Modality was manipulated by placing the brand either visually or auditorily in the film, and either in the narration or in the dialogue of the text. Frequency was manipulated by inserting the brand either two or four times. Persuasion knowledge and irritation were measured as potential mediators. The findings show that, in film, greater irritation with auditory than visual placements ensues at low (but not high) placement frequency. In text, exposure to dialogue (vs. narration) placements leads to more irritation, regardless of frequency. As expected, irritation – but not persuasion knowledge – mediates the effects of modality and frequency on brand and film/story attitude in both media.

The Barcan formulas and necessary existence: the view from Quarc

The Modal Predicate Calculus gives rise to issues surrounding the Barcan formulas, their converses, and necessary existence. I examine these issues by means of the Quantified Argument Calculus (Quarc), a recently developed, powerful formal logic system. Quarc is closer in syntax and logical properties to Natural Language than is the Predicate Calculus, a fact that lends additional interest to this examination, as Quarc might offer a better representation of our modal concepts. The validity of the Barcan formulas and their converses is shown by Quarc to be a result of the specific incorporation of quantification in the Predicate Calculus, and not as reflecting a feature of the interaction of quantification and modality more generally. Necessary existence is shown to follow from the identification, in the Predicate Calculus on its canonical interpretation, of particular quantification, ascription of existence and the ‘there is’ construction, three constructions which are distinguished in both Quarc and Natural Language. The issues surrounding the Barcan formulas, their converses and necessary existence are thus shown to be an artefact of a specific logic system, not an essential feature of our relevant modal concepts or of formal logic.

SUN-070 The effects of social support on health-related quality-of-life in peritoneal dialysis patients

Aged multi-morbid end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients requiring dialysis increased rapidly in Taiwan and they often chose more hemodialysis (HD) than peritoneal dialysis (PD). Although PD patients had better health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in literature, to explore the factors to influence detailed physical component summaries (PCS) and mental component summaries (MCS) is essential for healthcare provider to achieve comprehensive ESRD care. A cross-sectional study was conducted for maintenance HD and PD patients in one medical center and five regional hospitals, using two inistruments of SF-12 and kidney disease component summary (KDCS) in KDQOL-SF during June 2013 to November 2014. While SF-12 collected HRQoL information, KDCS collected information related to burden of kidney disease, symptoms/problems of kidney disease, effects of kidney disease, and social support. Two aspects of HRQoL was measured, i.e., MCS and PCS. PD patients were approached during their monthly follow-up outpatient consultation, and HD patients were approached during their regular in-centre therapies, generally three times a week. A multiple regression was employed to examine the effects of dialysis modality, satisfaction with social support, and the interaction of dialysis modality and satisfaction with social support. The covariates interaction measured the difference in HRQoL between dissatisfaction patients in the two modalities (PD vs.HD). The enrolled 646 patients (443 HD vs. 203 PD) were 367 males (56.8%) and PD patients are younger, more satisfied with family and friend companion time, with lower comorbidities (>2) and dialysis vintages (> 4 years) than HD patients. No difference in HRQoL between paients in PD vs. HD patients. Furthermore, for patients dissatisfied with social support, the scores of MCS in HRQoL were significantly lower than those of satisfied ones. However, for patients dissatisfied with social support, the PD patients significantly had the lower scores of MCS in HRQoL than HD ones. The results of this study not only reveal the important contribution of social support to the HRQoL of dialysis patients but also demonstrate the critical role of social support for patients in therapy required considerable self-care. PD patients requires considerable self-care and might need assistances from family or friends. When PD patients could not obtain adequate assistances, they might be dissatisfied with their social support, which could in turn result in lower HRQoL. On the contrary, for those HD patients who were not satisfied with their social supports, their HRQoL might not be affected considerably since most of their dialysis care was performed by medical professionals. Therefore, HD patients could still enjoy better HRQoL than PD patients given that both groups of patients dissatisfied with their social supports. Policymakers and healthcare providers should pay close attention to the social support of dialysis patients since it can play a major role on their HRQoL. Future studies can further investigate the effects of the social support from medical professionals on HRQoL of dialysis patients. Moreover, further investigations on the contributions of different dimensions of social supports, i.e., emotional, appraisal, are warranted.

Cognitive Load and Situation Awareness for Soldiers: Effects of Message Presentation Rate and Sensory Modality.

We sought to determine the influence of message presentation rate (MPR) and sensory modality on soldier cognitive load. Soldiers commonly communicate tactical information by radio. The Canadian Army is equipping soldiers with a battle management system (BMS), which also allows them to communicate by text. We varied presentation modality (auditory vs. visual) and MPR (fast or slow) in an experiment involving a tactical scenario. Participants (soldiers) received messages and periodically provided situation reports to higher level command, and the scored reports were used to provide a measure of situation awareness (SA). The detection response task (DRT) and NASA-TLX were used to measure cognitive load. The fast MPR reduced DRT accuracy and increased response times relative to slow MPR. The NASA-TLX results also showed higher subjective workload ratings for several subscales with fast MPR. Messages presented visually produced greater cognitive load, with slower DRT response times for the visual than the auditory condition. SA scores were higher with slower MPR and auditory presentation. There was no statistical interaction of presentation modality and rate for any measure. Fast MPR and visual presentation increased cognitive load and degraded SA. These findings show that the DRT can be used to measure workload effectively in a tactical military context and that the method of information presentation affects how soldiers process information in a BMS.

Comparison of Survey Modality and Response Rate in Dermatologists’ Perceptions and Opinions of Sunscreens

Background. Survey instruments are valuable tools for research and provide insight into real-world practice and areas of knowledge deficits in ways that traditional observational studies and randomized trials cannot. Despite some experts espousing survey response rates ≥60% as valid, there is no consensus as to what an adequate response rate is for a scientific survey. Furthermore, little is known what effect the interaction of survey administration modality and response rate has on results. Objective. To compare the results of differing survey modalities (which typically feature different response rate ranges). Methods. A validated, 21-item survey assessing perceptions of, recommendations regarding, and usage of sunscreen was distributed to three samples of dermatologists using three different modalities: pen/paper via mail, online via email, and in real-time via an audience response system at a national conference. Results. Response rates varied widely by survey modality (30% mail, 9% email 95% live). However, dermatologists’ responses to individual survey questions were largely consistent across modalities, with a statistically significant difference seen for only three questions (recommending sunscreens based on cosmetic elegance, recommending sunscreens based on photostability, and recommending vitamin D supplementation as a means to avoid sun exposure. Conclusions. In this study evaluating dermatologists’ perceptions of, recommendations for, and personal use of sunscreen, survey results were largely consistent across three different modalities (mail, email, live) despite widely variable response rates, from 9% to 95%. These results suggest that when a scientific survey sample is representative of the target population, minimum response rate and survey modality appear to have negligible impact on results.

Modality annotation for Portuguese: from manual annotation to automatic labeling

We investigate modality in Portuguese and we combine a linguistic perspective with an application-oriented perspective on modality. We design an annotation scheme reflecting theoretical linguistic concepts and apply this schema to a small corpus sample to show how the scheme deals with real world language usage. We present two schemas for Portuguese, one for spoken Brazilian Portuguese and one for written European Portuguese. Furthermore, we use the annotated data not only to study the linguistic phenomena of modality, but also to train a practical text mining tool to detect modality in text automatically. The modality tagger uses a machine learning classifier trained on automatically extracted features from a syntactic parser. As we only have a small annotated sample available, the tagger was evaluated on 11 modal verbs that are frequent in our corpus and that denote more than one modal meaning. Finally, we discuss several valuable insights into the complexity of the semantic concept of modality that derive from the process of manual annotation of the corpus and from the analysis of the results of the automatic labeling: ambiguity and the semantic and syntactic properties typically associated to one modal meaning in context, and also the interaction of modality with negation and focus. The knowledge gained from the manual annotation task leads us to propose a new unified scheme for modality that applies to the two Portuguese varieties and covers both written and spoken data.

Bilingual approach to online cancer genetics education for Deaf American Sign Language users produces greater knowledge and confidence than English text only: A randomized study

IntroductionDeaf American Sign Language-users (ASL) have limited access to cancer genetics information they can readily understand, increasing risk for health disparities. We compared effectiveness of online cancer genetics information presented using a bilingual approach (ASL with English closed captioning) and a monolingual approach (English text). HypothesisBilingual modality would increase cancer genetics knowledge and confidence to create a family tree; education would interact with modality. MethodsWe used a parallel 2:1 randomized pre-post study design stratified on education. 150 Deaf ASL-users ≥18 years old with computer and internet access participated online; 100 (70 high, 30 low education) and 50 (35 high, 15 low education) were randomized to the bilingual and monolingual modalities. Modalities provide virtually identical content on creating a family tree, using the family tree to identify inherited cancer risk factors, understanding how cancer predisposition can be inherited, and the role of genetic counseling and testing for prevention or treatment. 25 true/false items assessed knowledge; a Likert scale item assessed confidence. Data were collected within 2 weeks before and after viewing the information. ResultsSignificant interaction of language modality, education, and change in knowledge scores was observed (p = .01). High education group increased knowledge regardless of modality (Bilingual: p < .001; d = .56; Monolingual: p < .001; d = 1.08). Low education group increased knowledge with bilingual (p < .001; d = .85), but not monolingual (p = .79; d = .08) modality. Bilingual modality yielded greater confidence creating a family tree (p = .03). ConclusionsBilingual approach provides a better opportunity for lower educated Deaf ASL-users to access cancer genetics information than a monolingual approach.

Motivation in computer-assisted instruction.

Computer-aided instruction (CAI) is defined as instruction in which computers play a central role as the means of information delivery and direct interaction with learners. Computer-aided instruction has become mainstream in medical school curricula. For example, a three-dimensional (3D) computer module of the larynx has been created to teach laryngeal anatomy. Although the novelty and educational potential of CAI has garnered much attention, these new technologies have been plagued with low utilization rates. Several experts attribute this problem to lack of motivation in students. Motivation is defined as the desire and action toward goal-oriented behavior. Psychologist Dr. John Keller developed the ARCS theory of motivational learning, which proposed four components: attention (A), relevance (R), concentration (C), and satisfaction (S). Keller believed that motivation is not only an innate characteristic of the pupil; it can also be influenced by external factors, such as the instructional design of the curriculum. Thus, understanding motivation is an important step to designing CAI appropriately. Keller also developed a 36-item validated instrument called the Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS) to measure motivation. The objective of this study was to study motivation in CAI. Medical students learning anatomy with the 3D computer module will have higher laryngeal anatomy test scores and higher IMMS motivation scores. Higher anatomy test scores will be positively associated with higher IMMS scores. Prospective, randomized, controlled trial. After obtaining institutional review board approval, 100 medical students (mean age 25.5 ± 2.5, 49% male) were randomized to either the 3D computer module (n = 49) or written text (n = 51). Information content was identical in both arms. Students were given 30 minutes to study laryngeal anatomy and then completed the laryngeal anatomy test and IMMS. Students were categorized as either junior (year 1 and 2) or senior (year 3 and 4). There were no significant differences in anatomy scores based on educational modality. There was significant interaction of educational modality by year [F(1,96) = 4.12, P = 0.045, ω(2) = 0.031]. For the total score, there was a significant effect of year [F(1,96) = 22.28, P < 0.001, ω(2) = 0.178], with seniors (15.4 ± 2.6) scoring significantly higher than juniors (12.8 ± 3.1). For the motivational score, the total IMMS score had two significant effects. With educational modality [F(1,96) = 5.18, P = 0.025, ω(2) = 0.041], the 3D group (12.4 ± 2.8) scored significantly higher than the written text group (11.7 ± 3.2). With year [F(1,96) = 25.31, P < 0.001, ω(2) = 0.198], seniors (13.4 ± 3.0) scored significantly higher than juniors (10.8 ± 2.5). Pearson's correlation showed positive associations (r = 0.22-0.91) between anatomy scores and IMMS motivation scores (P < 0.05). Computer-aided instruction conferred no measurable educational benefit over traditional written text in medical students; however, CAI was associated with higher motivational levels. Computer-aided instruction was found to have a greater positive impact on senior medical students with higher anatomy and motivational scores. Higher anatomy scores were positively associated with higher motivational scores. Computer-aided instruction may be better targeted toward senior students. N/A. Laryngoscope, 126:S5-S13, 2016.

Making sense of negated modals in English

The complexities of the interaction of modality and negation are well-known. They mainly arise from different scopes of negation. Thus, the negation in You mustn’t go has narrow scope while the negation in You can’t go has wide scope. This study adopts a cognitive approach to the issue of scope in negated modality. It examines negated modals within a conceptual matrix developed on the basis of conceptual distinctions that are crucial to modality. The distribution of negated modal verbs within the conceptual matrix reveals which modal concepts are coded in a given language and which ones are not. The study focuses on the system of English negated modals but also compares it to the systems of German, Dutch and Norwegian. In all four languages, the predominant way of negating modals is by using wide-scope negation. German, in fact, wholly relies on wide-scope negation, while English makes use of both scopes of negation. Its mixed nature leads to a number of “irregularities” in the use of modals, which, however, can still be shown to be motivated.

Combined Auditory and Vibrotactile Feedback for Human–Machine-Interface Control

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of the addition of binary vibrotactile stimulation to continuous auditory feedback (vowel synthesis) for human-machine interface (HMI) control. Sixteen healthy participants controlled facial surface electromyography to achieve 2-D targets (vowels). Eight participants used only real-time auditory feedback to locate targets whereas the other eight participants were additionally alerted to having achieved targets with confirmatory vibrotactile stimulation at the index finger. All participants trained using their assigned feedback modality (auditory alone or combined auditory and vibrotactile) over three sessions on three days and completed a fourth session on the third day using novel targets to assess generalization. Analyses of variance performed on the 1) percentage of targets reached and 2) percentage of trial time at the target revealed a main effect for feedback modality: participants using combined auditory and vibrotactile feedback performed significantly better than those using auditory feedback alone. No effect was found for session or the interaction of feedback modality and session, indicating a successful generalization to novel targets but lack of improvement over training sessions. Future research is necessary to determine the cognitive cost associated with combined auditory and vibrotactile feedback during HMI control.

Infant Attention to Dynamic Audiovisual Stimuli: Look Duration From 3 to 9 Months of Age

The goal of this study was to examine developmental change in visual attention to dynamic visual and audiovisual stimuli in 3‐, 6‐, and 9‐month‐old infants. Infant look duration was measured during exposure to dynamic geometric patterns and Sesame Street video clips under three different stimulus modality conditions: unimodal visual, synchronous audiovisual, and asynchronous audiovisual. Infants looked longer toward Sesame Street stimuli than geometric patterns, and infants also looked longer during multimodal audiovisual (synchronous and asynchronous) presentations than during unimodal visual presentations. There was a three‐way interaction of age, stimulus type, and stimulus modality. Significant differences were found within and between age groups related to stimulus modality (visual or audiovisual) while viewing Sesame Street clips. No significant interaction was found between age and stimulus type while infants viewed dynamic geometric patterns. These findings indicate that patterns of developmental change in infant attention vary based on stimulus complexity and modality of presentation.

The interaction of modality and negation in Finnish

In Finnish, negation is expressed via an auxiliary, and no other verb may occur above this auxiliary in the structure. This gives rise to a problem with respect to the modals of obligation and necessity, which take scope over negation yet appear below it. It is tempting to account for this in terms of LF-movement, but evidence suggests that there are in fact two modal phrases in Finnish, one above negation and the other below it, the higher of which encodes necessity/obligation. Evidence for the higher phrase comes from the negative imperative. Although the PF part of a verb in a negative sentence cannot move to the head of this higher phrase, the head itself is in the right position to take scope over negation. Thus, rather than attributing the scope properties of the modals to LF-movement, it will instead be argued that the LF-interpretable part of a head is merged precisely where it takes scope, and that the relation between the LF- and PF-interpretable parts of the modal is one ofchecking at a distance. Head-movement will be regarded solely as a PF phenomenon. It will be seen that the scope relations of the modals and the imperative mood can be accounted for under this hypothesis. Thus, Finnish provides evidence for a view of syntax which identifies syntactic structure largely with the LF-interpretable part of a sentence, and sees head movement as fundamentally a PF phenomenon. There are two morphological moods in Finnish, which seem to provide counter-examples to this hypothesis, which will be left as a problem for future research.

Modales ambiguos

This article explores the interaction of Tense, Aspect and Modality in French, Italian and Spanish, languages in which Modals are inflected as main verbs. Imperfective modals are a-averidical, as modals are expected to be, but when they appear in a perfective tense, unexpected entailments and implicatures appear. For example, the following example is three-way ambiguous in Spanish; the corresponding example is two way-ambiguous in Italian and French: P. may have won, could have won, managed to win the race The three readings, epistemic, counterfactual and implicative, are derived from the alternative orderings of three heads, Tense, Aspect and Modal; any ordering in which Modal scopes over Tense is out on semantic grounds; these leaves three possible orderings which result in the three readings. In the epistemic construal, Modal has scope over Tense and Aspect, which are read on the infinitive. As a result, Modal Evaluation Time is at Utterance Time and the lower infinitive is Past and Perfective. There is no interaction between Modal and the other two heads and averidicality is the result. In the counterfactual reading,Tense scopes over Modal, which in turn scopes over Aspect: the result is a past Modal Evaluation; Perfective Aspect makes the interval in which verifying instances of the lower event are sought bounded, which contributes settledness. These are the crucial ingredients for counterfactuality. When Tense and Aspect are both read on the modal, the lower event is entailed and an implicative reading ensues. Italian and French do not have the counterfactual reading because their only surviving perfective past is a morphological perfect which, since it involves a resulting state, is incompatible with counterfactuality. Spanish perfecto also lacks this reading.