Inter-area Differences Research Articles

Efficiency of agricultural modernization in China: Systematic analysis in the new framework of multidimensional security

Agricultural modernization is the foundation and pillar of national modernization, and its security should not be ignored. However, the traditional efficiency assessment does not take security factors into account. To improve this work, we tried to embed multidimensional security issues into the assessment framework of agricultural modernization efficiency (AME) and analyzed its efficiency levels, regional differences, and dynamic evolution using the Super-EBM model, Dagum Gini coefficient, and spatial Markov chain model. We found that: (1) At the national level, the agricultural operation efficiency (AOE) and agricultural service efficiency (ASE) were generally lower than the agricultural production efficiency (APE), with significant potential for improvement. The spatial characteristics exhibited evident spatial clustering, and the spatial differences in AME, AOE, and ASE were similar. (2) The overall Gini coefficient of AME fluctuates in the range of 0.1168–0.1334 from 2006 to 2020, and the differences in AME were dominated by inter-area differences, with an average contribution rate of 68.72%. (3) The spatial pattern of AME was relatively stable, with prominent “club convergence” characteristics, and spatial factors had adverse spillover effects on the evolution toward convergence. Policymakers should strive to fill the shortcomings of agricultural operations and agricultural services, formulate differentiated agricultural strategies for development and promote knowledge exchange and technological diffusion. These are important for building a modern agricultural system and promoting the spatially balanced development of modernized agriculture.

Blinder-Oaxaca 분해법을 활용한 서울시 아파트가격지수 작성에 관한 연구

We establish a house price index for Seoul based on a Fisher Ideal aggregation of a two-way Blinder-Oaxaca (BO) decomposition, the FIBO index. Applying the BO decomposition to the apartment market decomposes the intercity differences in the mean house prices into two parts: (i) differences that are due to the differences in housing characteristics across areas (endowment effects) and (ii) differences that arise from the interarea differences in implicit prices of those characteristics (coefficient effects). Using actual transaction data for apartments in Seoul from 2017 to 2022, the FIBO index is constructed based on the estimated coefficient effects. Robustness tests show that our method is far less influenced by changes in sample sizes and selection of the reference. We also show that the FIBO index more accurately reflects the actual movement and fluctuation of apartment prices compared to existing indices, which suggests that the FIBO index could serve as a good complementary house price index.

Comparison between Macro and Trace Element Concentrations in Human Semen and Blood Serum in Highly Polluted Areas in Italy.

Macro and trace elements are important regulators of biological processes, including those ones linked to reproduction. Among them, Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Se, and Zn ensure normal spermatic functions. Hence, the aim of this study was to evaluate the concentrations of 26 macro and trace elements (Al, As, Ba, Be, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sb, Se, Sn, Sr, U, V, and Zn) in blood serum and also in semen of healthy young men, homogeneous for age, anthropometric characteristics, and lifestyle, living in three highly polluted areas in Italy. Furthermore, a comparison among three geographical areas was performed to highlight any difference in the investigated parameters and, overall, to speculate any correlations between chemical elements and semen quality. Statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) among the three areas were found for each investigated element, in both semen and serum samples, where inter-area differences were more evident in semen than in blood serum, suggesting human semen as an early environmental marker. Considering the homogeneity of three cohorts, these differences could be due more to environmental conditions in the recruiting areas, suggesting that variations in those involved in reproductive-associated pathways can have an impact on male fertility. Nevertheless, more research is needed to evaluate threshold values for sperm dysfunction and male infertility. Actually, the role of different dietary intake and environmental exposure underlying the observed differences in the recruiting areas is under further investigation for the same cohort.

The association of air pollutants exposure with subclinical inflammation and carotid atherosclerosis

BackgroundAir pollution is a well-described environmental factor with evidence suggesting a firm association with cardiovascular diseases. The purpose of this study was to determine the association of exposure to gaseous air pollutants on atherosclerosis burden. Methods1955 inhabitants of the Corinthia region, aged 40 years or older, underwent clinical and biochemical assessment as well as carotid ultrasonography to evaluate carotid intima-media thickness (cIMT) and plaque burden. Analyzers recording time series concentration of CO, NO2, and SO2 were located at 4 different open sites (Regions 1, 2, 3 and 4) based on their proximity to industries, highways or shipyards. ResultsA higher concentration of CO, NO2, and SO2 was observed in Region 4 compared to the other regions. Mean cIMT (Region 1: 0.93 ± 0.24 mm; Region 2: 0.96 ± 0.40 mm; Region 3: 0.94 ± 0.39 mm; Region 4: 1.14 ± 0.55 mm, p < 0.001), maximum cIMT (p < 0.001) as well as carotid plaque burden (Region 1: 13.3%; Region 2: 18.8%; Region 3: 22.4%; Region 4: 38.6%, p < 0.001) were significantly higher in individuals of Region 4. Inhabitants of Region 4 had also higher levels of C reactive protein (Region 1: 4.56 ± 4.85 mg/l; Region 2: 3.49 ± 4.46 mg/l; Region 3: 4.03 ± 3.32 mg/l, Region 4: 5.16 ± 8.26 mg/l, p < 0.001). Propensity score analysis revealed higher inter-area differences in mean cIMT of individuals with coronary artery disease (CAD) (high vs low air pollution area: 1.56 ± 0.80 mm; vs. 1.18 ± 0.54 mm, p < 0.001) while there was no difference in cIMT of the matched population without CAD (p = 0.52). ConclusionsAn increased carotid atherosclerotic and inflammatory burden is observed in inhabitants of areas with the highest concentration of air pollutants.

Increased exposure to air pollutants leads to greater atherosclerotic burden mediated by systemic inflammation

Abstract Introduction Air pollution has been a well-described environmental factor contributing significantly to the global disease burden. Purpose To examine the association of gaseous air pollutants with atherosclerosis, especially in subjects with coronary artery disease (CAD). Methods 2053 individuals enrolled in the Corinthia study underwent clinical and biochemical assessment followed by carotid ultrasonography to evaluate carotid intima-media thickness (cIMT) and plaque burden. Inflammation was estimated via measurement of C-Reactive protein (CRP). Air pollutants concentration analysis was performed in prespecified regions with respect to their proximity to heavy industries, highways and shipyards. Results A higher concentration of gaseous air pollutants was observed in Region 4 when compared to other regions (Table). Mean cIMT, maximum cIMT and carotid plaque burden were significantly increased in individuals of Region 4 (Table, Figure A and B), a result which remained unaffected after adjustment for cardiovascular confounders (Figure C). In parallel, inhabitants of Region 4 had higher levels of CRP (Region 1: 4.60±5.01mg/l; Region 2: 3.08±3.26mg/l; Region 3: 4.37±4.70mg/l, Region 4: 6.78±9.77mg/l, p&amp;lt;0.001). To examine the effect of air pollution on atherosclerosis in CAD, propensity scores were applied to match healthy controls with CAD subjects in terms of atherosclerosis risk factors resulting in two matched groups; one in regions 1, 2 and 3 -low air pollution areas (LAPA)- and another in region 4 -high air pollution area (HAPA). Interestingly, we noted substantially higher inter-area differences in mean cIMT of CAD individuals (Figure D). Conclusion Air pollution may significantly contribute to atherosclerosis progression, potentially via the induction of inflammation. A more pronounced effect was noted in CAD individuals exposed to high air pollution. Funding Acknowledgement Type of funding source: None

Distinct neuronal interactions in anterior inferotemporal areas of macaque monkeys during retrieval of object association memory.

In macaque monkeys, the anterior inferotemporal cortex, a region crucial for object memory processing, is composed of two adjacent, hierarchically distinct areas, TE and 36, for which different functional roles and neuronal responses in object memory tasks have been characterized. However, it remains unknown how the neuronal interactions differ between these areas during memory retrieval. Here, we conducted simultaneous recordings from multiple single-units in each of these areas while monkeys performed an object association memory task and examined the inter-area differences in neuronal interactions during the delay period. Although memory neurons showing sustained activity for the presented cue stimulus, cue-holding (CH) neurons, interacted with each other in both areas, only those neurons in area 36 interacted with another type of memory neurons coding for the to-be-recalled paired associate (pair-recall neurons) during memory retrieval. Furthermore, pairs of CH neurons in area TE showed functional coupling in response to each individual object during memory retention, whereas the same class of neuron pairs in area 36 exhibited a comparable strength of coupling in response to both associated objects. These results suggest predominant neuronal interactions in area 36 during the mnemonic processing, which may underlie the pivotal role of this brain area in both storage and retrieval of object association memory.

Pre-Hospital ECG E-Transmission for Patients with Suspected Myocardial Infarction in the Highlands of Scotland

Patients with ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) require prompt treatment, best done by primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PPCI). However, for patients unable to receive PPCI, immediate pre-hospital thrombolysis (PHT) is the best alternative. Evidence indicates that diagnostic and management support for staff increases the use of PHT. This study aimed to describe the patient demographics and management of patients, to determine any potential inter-area differences in referral rates to the ECG e-transmission service and to explore the views and experiences of key staff involved in ECG e-transmission within NHS Highland. Data from 2,025 patient episodes of ECG e-transmission identified a statistically significant geographical variation in ECG e-transmission and PHT delivery. Scottish Ambulance Service (SAS) staff were more likely than GPs to deliver PHT overall, however, GPs were more likely to deliver in remote areas. Interviews with six Cardiac Care Unit (CCU) nurses and six SAS staff highlighted their positive views of ECG e-transmission, citing perceived benefits to patients and interprofessional relationships. Poor access to network signal was noted to be a barrier to engaging in the system. This study has demonstrated that a specialist triage service based on e-transmission of ECGs in patients with suspected STEMI can be implemented in a diverse geographical setting. Work is needed to ensure equity of the service for all patients.

A Research on Emergency DC Power Support Based on DCOI

An integrated scheme of emergency DC power support which is based on dominant center of Inertia DCOI is proposed to improve power system transient stability. The inter-area speed differences equivalent by dominant center of inertia alleviates the main weakness of the traditional signal which is made of the frequencies at both sides and is represent of abnormal information of the nonlinear dynamic behavior of the power system based on a model in which two AC systems are connected by a HVDC Link. Sichuan Power Grid connected with Southwest Power Grid by Deyang-Baoji HVDC project is used to testify the method. The simulation results show that the control strategy can significantly advance the transient stability of AC/DC system through extended equal area criterion (EEAC).

Bulky DNA Adducts in White Blood Cells: A Pooled Analysis of 3,600 Subjects

Bulky DNA adducts are markers of exposure to genotoxic aromatic compounds, which reflect the ability of an individual to metabolically activate carcinogens and to repair DNA damage. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) represent a major class of carcinogens that are capable of forming such adducts. Factors that have been reported to be related to DNA adduct levels include smoking, diet, body mass index (BMI), genetic polymorphisms, the season of collection of biologic material, and air pollutants. We pooled 11 studies (3,600 subjects) in which bulky DNA adducts were measured in human white blood cells with similar (32)P-postlabeling techniques and for which a similar set of variables was available, including individual data on age, gender, ethnicity, batch, smoking habits, BMI, and season of blood collection, and a limited set of gene variants. Lowest DNA adduct levels (P = 0.006) were observed in the spring (median = 0.50 adducts per 10(8) nucleotides), followed by summer (0.64), autumn (0.70), and winter (0.85). The same pattern emerged in multivariate analysis but only among never smokers (P = 0.02). Adduct levels were significantly lower (P = 0.001) in northern Europe (the Netherlands and Denmark; mean = 0.60, median = 0.40) than in southern Europe (Italy, Spain, France, and Greece; mean = 0.79, median = 0.60). In this large pooled analysis, we have found only weak associations between bulky DNA adducts and exposure variables. Seasonality (with higher adducts levels in winter) and air pollution may partly explain some of the interarea differences (north vs. south Europe), but most inter-area and interindividual variations in adduct levels still remain unexplained. Our study describes the largest pooled analysis of bulky DNA adducts so far, showing that interindividual variation is still largely unexplained, though seasonality seems to play a role.

Rank Signals in Four Areas of Macaque Frontal Cortex During Selection of Actions and Objects in Serial Order

Neurons in several areas of monkey frontal cortex exhibit ordinal position (rank) selectivity during the performance of serial order tasks. It has been unclear whether rank selectivity or the dependence of rank selectivity on task context varies across the areas of frontal cortex. To resolve this issue, we recorded from neurons in the supplementary motor area (SMA), presupplementary motor area (pre-SMA), supplementary eye field (SEF), and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) as monkeys performed two oculomotor tasks, one requiring the selection of three actions in sequence and the other requiring the selection of three objects in sequence. We found that neurons representing all ranks were present in all areas. Only to a moderate degree did the prevalence and nature of rank selectivity vary from area to area. The two most prominent inter-area differences involved a lower prevalence of rank selectivity in the dlPFC than in the other areas and a higher proportion of neurons preferring late ranks in the SMA and SEF than in the other areas. Neurons in all four areas are rank generalists in the sense of favoring the same rank in both the serial action task and the serial object task.

M-quantile models for small area estimation

Small area estimation techniques typically rely on regression models that use both covariates and random effects to explain variation between the areas. However, such models also depend on strong distributional assumptions, require a formal specification of the random part of the model and do not easily allow for outlier-robust inference. We describe a new approach to small area estimation that is based on modelling quantilelike parameters of the conditional distribution of the target variable given the covariates. This avoids the problems associated with specification of random effects, allowing inter-area differences to be characterised by area-specific M-quantile coefficients. The proposed approach is easily made robust against outlying data values and can be adapted for estimation of a wide range of area-specific parameters, including quantiles of the distribution of the target variable in the different small areas. The differences between M-quantile and random effects models are discussed and the alternative approaches to small area estimation are compared using both simulated and real data.

Baseline Study on Essential and Trace Elements in Polished Rice from South Korea

In 2000, 63 (polished) white rice samples were collected in eight administrative areas all over South Korea and analyzed for 16 elements by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES). Potassium had the highest content, next to Mg, Ca, Si, Zn, Na, Al and Fe. Most of the samples contained worldwide average concentrations of essential and trace elements in rice grains reported by various researches. For inter-area differences in those elements in the rice, the statistical analysis showed no significant differences (p > 0.05) among the eight administrative areas, suggesting that inter-area differences were not substantial in most cases. Thus, the present data can be used as national background levels of elements in rice produced in South Korea. Using the published data on daily consumption of rice in South Korea, it was possible to estimate the daily intake of As, Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn via rice. The results showed that a regular consumption of rice produced in Korea plays an important role in accumulation of essential and trace elements in Korean, especially for farm-households consuming relatively large amounts of rice.

Allozyme studies of Greenland halibut,Reinhardtius hippoglossoidesWalbaum 1792, from the North Atlantic

Abstract The possible existence of discrete stocks of Greenland halibut, Reinhardtius hippoglossoides, is an important question for conservation and for rational exploitation. A total of 12 enzyme systems investigated by starch gel electrophoresis were interpreted as representing 20 putative loci. Three loci were polymorphic at the 0.95 criterion: GPI-1 *, IDHP-2 * and PGM *. Tests for heterogeneity in the allele distribution among six sample areas (east and west Greenland, Jan Mayen, the Barents Sea, Faeroe Islands and the Shetland Islands) in the North Atlantic (totally 745 specimens) did not reveal any significant inter-area differences. The results are discussed in the context of life history characteristics and the potential for gene flow, and compared to previous studies using allozyme and mtDNA analyses.

WAGE DIFFERENTIALS ACROSS LABOR MARKETS AND WORKERS: DOES COST OF LIVING MATTER?

Wage differential studies rarely account for interarea differences in cost of living, owing both to data limitations and theoretical ambiguity. This study develops a price index for 185 metropolitan areas comprising about 70% of the U.S. labor force. Current Population Survey data for 1985–95 and data on site‐specific amenities are used to estimate earnings differentials based on nominal wages, wages fully adjusted for measured cost of living, and a simple approximation of “real” wages with partial adjustment for price‐level differences. Dispersion in approximate real wages across 185 labor markets and differentials by region and city size are substantially lower than dispersion in nominal or full adjustment wages. Estimates of racial and ethnic differentials display moderate sensitivity to choice of a wage measure, whereas other standard differentials do not. Both nominal wages and wages fully adjusted for cost of living may provide misleading estimates of real wage differentials. Absent data on interarea prices and amenities, researchers should include detailed controls for region and city size in nominal wage equations. (JEL J31, R23)

Distribution Sensitive Measures of Poverty in the United States

This paper develops and applies new measures of poverty that overcome a number of specific methodological flaws in the official US poverty statistics. Sen's distribution sensitive index of poverty and each of its components are estimated at several distinct poverty thresholds for the period 1961–1996. Distribution sensitive measures of urban poverty are corrected for interarea differences in the cost of living and for comprehensive incomes. Recently developed statistical inference procedures are applied. Official poverty statistics are shown to be seriously misleading in some time periods and the choice of a poverty line affects conclusions concerning changes in poverty.

Crime and the Timing of Work

Two striking facts describe work timing in the United States: A lower propensity to work evenings and nights in large metropolitan areas, and a secular decline in such work since 1973. One explanation is higher and possibly increasing crime in large areas. I link Current Population Survey data on work timing to FBI crime reports. Neither fact is explained by changes in nor inter-area differences in crime rates; but higher homicide rates do reduce such work. This reduction implicitly costs the economy between $4 and $10 billion. This negative externality illustrates a larger class of previously unmeasured costs of social pathologies.

Representation of Spectral and Temporal Sound Features in Three Cortical Fields of the Cat. Similarities Outweigh Differences

This study investigates the degree of similarity of three different auditory cortical areas with respect to the coding of periodic stimuli. Simultaneous single- and multiunit recordings in response to periodic stimuli were made from primary auditory cortex (AI), anterior auditory field (AAF), and secondary auditory cortex (AII) in the cat to addresses the following questions: is there, within each cortical area, a difference in the temporal coding of periodic click trains, amplitude-modulated (AM) noise bursts, and AM tone bursts? Is there a difference in this coding between the three cortical fields? Is the coding based on the temporal modulation transfer function (tMTF) and on the all-order interspike-interval (ISI) histogram the same? Is the perceptual distinction between rhythm and roughness for AM stimuli related to a temporal versus spatial representation of AM frequency in auditory cortex? Are interarea differences in temporal response properties related to differences in frequency tuning? The results showed that: 1) AM stimuli produce much higher best modulation frequencies (BMFs) and limiting rates than periodic click trains. 2) For periodic click trains and AM noise, the BMFs and limiting rates were not significantly different for the three areas. However, for AM tones the BMF and limiting rates were about a factor 2 lower in AAF compared with the other areas. 3) The representation of stimulus periodicity in ISIs resulted in significantly lower mean BMFs and limiting rates compared with those estimated from the tMTFs. The difference was relatively small for periodic click trains but quite large for both AM stimuli, especially in AI and AII. 4) Modulation frequencies <20 Hz were represented in the ISIs, suggesting that rhythm is coded in auditory cortex in temporal fashion. 5) In general only a modest interdependence of spectral- and temporal-response properties in AI and AII was found. The BMFs were correlated positively with characteristic frequency in AAF. The limiting rate was positively correlated with the frequency-tuning curve bandwidth in AI and AII but not in AAF. Only in AAF was a correlation between BMF and minimum latency was found. Thus whereas differences were found in the frequency-tuning curve bandwidth and minimum response latencies among the three areas, the coding of periodic stimuli in these areas was fairly similar with the exception of the very poor representation of AM tones in AII. This suggests a strong parallel processing organization in auditory cortex.

Have sperm densities declined? A reanalysis of global trend data.

In 1992 a worldwide decline in sperm density was reported; this was quickly followed by numerous critiques and editorials. Because of the public health importance of this finding, a detailed reanalysis of data from 61 studies was warranted to resolve these issues. Multiple linear regression models (controlling for abstinence time, age, percent proven fertility, specimen collection method, study goal and location) were used to examine regional differences and the interaction between region (United States, Europe, and non-Western countries) and year. Nonlinear models and residual confounding were also examined in these data. Using a linear model (adjusted R2 = 0. 80), means and slopes differed significantly across regions (p = 0. 02). Mean sperm densities were highest in Europe and lowest in non-Western countries. A decline in sperm density was seen in the United States (studies from 1938-1988; slope = -1.50; 95% confidence interval (CI), -1.90--1.10) and Europe (1971-1990; slope = -3.13; CI, -4.96- -1.30), but not in non-Western countries (1978-1989; slope = 1.56; CI, -1.00-4.12). Results from nonlinear models (quadratic and spline) were similar. Thus, further analysis of these studies supports a significant decline in sperm density in the United States and Europe. Confounding and selection bias are unlikely to account for these results. However, some intraregional differences were as large as mean decline in sperm density between 1938 and 1990, and recent reports from Europe and the United States further support large interarea differences in sperm density. Identifying the cause(s) of these regional and temporal differences, whether environmental or other, is clearly warranted.

Influence of air pollution on humoral immune response

To learn more about the effects of ambient air pollution on the human immune system, immunological parameters—16 serum proteins and circulating immune complexes—were determined for more than 500 women from the polluted area of Cologne, Germany, and a control area, Borken. The geometric mean values for immunoglobulins, complement components, haptoglobin, α1-acid glycoprotein, α 1-antitrypsin, ceruloplasmin, α 2-macroglobulin, prealbumin, and transferrin were statistically significantly higher in Cologne than in Borken. No differences were found for C-reactive protein, rheumatoid factors, and anti-streptolysin O. For each of the parameters a logistic regression was fitted, thus controlling for the influence of a number of confounding factors. After controlling for possible confounders, the percentages of values above the norm for immunoglobulins, complement components, haptoglobin, and α-1-glycoprotein were statistically significantly higher in Cologne than in Borken. Important confounders included overweight, high blood pressure, acute cold, fever in the preceding week, and smoking. The biochemical mechanisms underlying the observed interarea differences in protein profiles are as yet unknown and should be the subject of further, nonepidemiological research.

Will Locality Pay Solve Recruitment and Retention Problems in the Federal Civil Service?

Do differences in the competitiveness of local labor markets affect the government's ability to recruit and retain federal workers? The Federal Employee Pay Comparability Act of 1990 (FEPCA) assumes that they do. FEPCA replaces a uniform national salary schedule for white-collar workers with a system of locality pay, which will remunerate the same work more highly in San Francisco than in Santa Fe. In this article, we use a 1 percent sample of federal personnel records for 1985 through 1989 to test several hypotheses about the relationship of local labor market conditions to federal recruitment and retention patterns. After a brief discussion of the mechanics and logic of locality pay, we examine interarea differences in federal turnover rates, entry levels, promotion chances, and grade levels. The 1990 Locality Pay Plan FEPCA committed the government to closing the federal-nonfederal pay gap within 13 years, rapidly raising pay in high labor cost areas, and offering special recruitment and retention bonuses in high-demand occupations. Federal salaries have fallen steadily further behind private sector salaries for the past decade, dropping from 3 percent behind in 1978 to 25 percent in 1990 (U.S. General Accounting Office, 1990). The single nationwide pay schedule may have worsened recruitment and retention problems in highly competitive labor markets, putting pressure on the civil service to raise salaries in those areas. In fact, 11 percent of all federal white-collar employees were receiving pay supplements or special pay rates in response to retention or recruitment problems by 1989 (U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 1989; 92-93, 315), and several agencies had attempted to evade General Schedule (GS) pay restrictions(1) (U.S. Congress, 1989b; 3). In the short run, FEPCA gave the President immediate authority to raise salaries 8 percent in areas facing the most serious recruitment problems, and within weeks of its passage President Bush granted that pay increase to federal employees in New York, Los Angeles, and San Francisco (Priest, 1990). This action matched recommendations made by the Wyatt Company, which OPM had hired to study locality pay, but Wyatt had also proposed similar increases for Washington, D.C., and Boston. Indeed, critics charged that the $700 million price tag was the only reason Washington employees were not granted the increase (Balz, 1990; Jenkins and Brown, 1990). In the longer run, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) will conduct area surveys on state and local government and private sector salaries for occupations common to a variety of industries. BLS is currently surveying the 24 Primary Metropolitan Statistical Areas (PMSAs) and 4 consolidated MSAs (which include 8 PMSAs) that have the most federal employees. It may survey additional areas in the future (Hearne, 1992). Under FEPCA, differences between average federal and nonfederal pay for comparable positions will be aggregated across occupations and grade levels to generate a single percentage pay disparity between typical federal and nonfederal pay in each locality pay area. FEPCA calls for all federal white-collar employees to receive annual pay increases one-half percent below increases in the employment cost index (ECI). In any of the surveyed MSAs where the federal-nonfederal pay disparity exceeded 5 percent, general service (GS) workers would receive additional salary increases intended to eliminate one-fifth of that disparity in 1994. In the following eight years, locality pay adjustments would continue to narrow federal-nonfederal gaps by 10 percent per year. Employees who moved would not take their old pay adjustments with them; instead, they would receive the GS rate of pay plus any locality adjustment effective for their new location. Testing the Logic Underlying Locality Pay The argument for locality pay rests primarily on the logic of the labor market: the federal civil service is one of many employers competing for the labor of a multitude of economically rational individuals. …