Intensive Cereal Production Research Articles

Home Economics at Middle Pre-Pottery Neolithic B al-Khayran in West-Central Jordan: Reconstructing Residential Unit Economic and Mobility Behavior through Lithic Analysis

ABSTRACT The shift from foraging to farming economies was deeply intertwined with increasing sedentism and the emergence of house-based corporate units in southwestern Asia, with a number of researchers arguing that in the early Neolithic, households become primary economic units within communities for the first time. In order to understand how this role for households articulated with new subsistence systems, this paper analyzes the knapped stone assemblage from the Middle Pre-Pottery Neolithic B agricultural field house of al-Khayran in the west-central Jordanian Highlands. Results demonstrate that al-Khayran’s residential unit enacted household maintenance activities, intensive cereal production, bidirectional blade reduction, and caching of stone tools in anticipation of repeated temporary occupations at the site. These findings show that the corporate household which occupied al-Khayran enacted novel mobility practices in order to accommodate emergent risks in agricultural economies.

The causes of differences between the average agricultural land prices of hungarian counties

Currently, there are significant differences between the average per hectare agricultural land prices of Hungarian counties. In this study, I endeavour to identify the causes of the price differentials by using a regression model. The data employed in the analysis relate to the years 2013, 2016 and 2020, and cover all of the 19 counties. The average yields of the main arable crops and the per capita GDP values of counties have a vigorous positive effect on land prices. Much like in numerous pieces of earlier research, it is demonstrated that larger average farm size also increases the price of agricultural land. Land prices are considerably higher in lowland areas with a smaller density of settlements than in otherwise similar but hilly or montainous regions, where there are more settlements. During the 2010s, agricultural land prices in Hungary grew dynamically. The rise of per capita GDP, average farm size and farm output per unit area played an important part in this, but perhaps the most consequential factor was the rise of the yields of the chief arable crops. The spectacular growth trend of average yields is attributable, above all, to the advance of agrotechnology. Since the fall of communism, Hungarian agriculture has shifted more and more towards intensive cereal production. Apparently, technological development has enhanced the profitability of cereal production relative to the other branches of agriculture, and it has thus raised the values of plots located in areas most suitable for arable farming.

Fertilizer use in conventional cereal production in northern Greece: Mapping gaps for improving sustainability

Summary Optimizing fertilizer use in intensively cropped soils is essential, but knowledge of related issues among farmers is lacking. The present study assessed farmers’ perceptions of fertilizers and practices of fertilizer use in intensive cereal production in rural areas of Evros in northern Greece. In total, 250 cereal farmers were chosen for this study, and more than half of the farmers (53.6%) perceived that chemical fertilizers are hazardous, corroborating a general perception of chemophobia. Nevertheless, almost all farmers (98.8%) stated that they applied fertilization in their cereal production. Among them, 82.8% applied inorganic fertilizers, 9.2% applied green manure, 4.4% applied animal manure, and 3.6% applied commercial organic fertilizers. Most farmers used rates within the recommended rates in cereal production, while 12.9% and 6.2% of the farmers reported fertilization rates that were significantly lower or higher than those recommended for the area, respectively. Almost half of the farmers (48.8%) stated that they often use slow-release fertilizers and 30.8% stated that they frequently use foliar-applied fertilizers in cereals. Most farmers (57.2%) never kept records of annual fertilizations, while two-thirds of the farmers (66.4%) never asked for a soil analysis. Overall, most farmers (52.0%) showed traditional behavior, while only 5.2% showed innovative behavior in fertilizer use. Multiple regression analysis revealed that the innovative behavior was promoted by large-scale farmers, farmers who applied crop rotation, and farmers who perceived inorganic fertilizers as harmful. Moreover, large farm size and favorable attitudes concerning organic fertilizers were significantly associated with organic fertilizers use.

A food systems approach and qualitative system dynamics model to reveal policy issues within the commercial broiler chicken system in South Africa.

Global broiler production and consumption levels continue to rise. South Africa’s broiler system is dominated by commercial production and formal retail trade, with competition from cheap imports. Local broiler policies have narrow, production-driven, short-term aims for industry growth and national food security. However, these have unintended consequences that undermine the system’s future sustainability. Using a food systems approach, this study developed a qualitative system dynamics model of the South African commercial broiler system and used it to engage stakeholders in policy discussions within the boundaries of health, nutrition, and environmental sustainability. A problem statement and key system elements were drawn from a previously published qualitative study and were validated by 15 stakeholders via an online questionnaire. From this, a seed model was developed, expanded into a larger model, and shared in a modular format with stakeholders in virtual meetings, on an individual or institutional basis, for feedback and validation, and for discussion of areas for policy consideration. Refinements were incorporated into the modules, policy considerations were summarised, and crosscutting issues were identified. The model demonstrated the system’s complexity, interlinkages, feedbacks, reinforcing and balancing loops, and behaviour archetypes. The modular presentation format created a suitable platform for stakeholder engagement. Current policies focus on local commercial production, formal markets, and affordability without cognisance of the broader system represented by the model. Inequality pervades throughout the system. Commercial producers, linked to large supermarkets and fast-food chains, dominate the system, presenting barriers to entry. Affordability is unintentionally traded off against non-communicable disease risks through brining of most frozen products, and ultra-processing of fast-food items. Foodborne disease control is critical, given the proportion of vulnerable individuals, and greater coherence of food safety policy is urgently needed. The environmental footprint of broilers, whilst less than that of ruminants, deserves closer scrutiny based on its dependence on intensive cereal production for feed. This study’s food systems approach provides a system-wide perspective and a foundation for policymakers to develop more integrated and transformative policies.

Shifting Rice Cropping Systems Mitigates Ecological Footprints and Enhances Grain Yield in Central China.

Intensive cereal production has brought about increasingly serious environmental threats, including global warming, environmental acidification, and water shortage. As an important grain producer in the world, the rice cultivation system in central China has undergone excessive changes in the past few decades. However, few articles focused on the environmental impacts of these shifts from the perspective of ecological footprints. In this study, a 2-year field trial was carried out in Hubei province, China, to gain insight into carbon footprint (CF), nitrogen footprint (NF), and water footprint (WF) performance. The three treatments were, namely, double-rice system (DR), ratoon rice system (RR), and rice-wheat system (RW). Results demonstrated that RR significantly increased the grain yield by 10.22–15.09% compared with DR, while there was no significant difference in the grain yield between RW and DR in 2018–2019. All of the calculation results by three footprint approaches followed the order: RR < RW < DR; meanwhile, RR was always significantly lower than DR. Methane and NH3 field emissions were the hotspots of CF and NF, respectively. Blue WF accounts for 40.90–42.71% of DR, which was significantly higher than that of RR and RW, primarily because DR needs a lot of irrigation water in both seasons. The gray WF of RW was higher than those of DR and RR, mainly due to the higher application rate of N fertilizer. In conclusion, RR possesses the characteristics of low agricultural inputs and high grain yield and can reduce CF, NF, and WF, considering the future conditions of rural societal developments and rapid demographic changes; we highlighted that the RR could be a cleaner and sustainable approach to grain production.

The impact of different rotation regime on the soil bacterial and fungal communities in an intensively managed agricultural region.

The continuous wheat-maize planting has led to the increase in epidemic frequency of wheat diseases under climate change. Analyzation of the soil microbial composition in different rotation crops is essential to select alternative rotation regime. This study investigated the bacterial and fungal community abundance and composition, and potential microbe-microbe interactions in three rotations, including wheat-maize → spring maize (WMFS), wheat-soybean (WS) and continuous wheat-maize (WM) planting. The results revealed that there were 110, 156, and 195 bacterial, and 17, 8, and 15 fungal operational taxonomic units respectively enriched by WMFS, WS, and WM. WM increased the relative abundance of Actinobacteria and α-Proteobacteria in wheat, and the relative abundance and copy number of genus Fusarium in maize. WMFS and WS could decrease the abundance of Fusarium in summer-crop across the growth stages and in wheat at elongation. WS also increased the copy number of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria in wheat at flowering and harvest. Network analysis revealed that WM resulted in simple and isolated wheat network with small modules dominating and none Nitrospirae and β-Proteobacteria in the main modules. WS formed interconnected and intricate wheat network with the maximum number of large modules and module connectors. Under WS, positive correlation between antagonistic Streptomyces (Actinobacteria) and genus Fusarium was found in wheat. Soil physicochemical properties explained the majority of the variation in bacterial and fungal β-diversity in wheat (P < 0.01). Rotation regime switching from WM to WMFS and WS may effectively damp the risk of wheat disease and maintain the wheat yield in intensive cereal production.

Carbon Dioxide Emission and Soil Sequestration for the French Agro-Food System: Present and Prospective Scenarios

France is a major agricultural power, characterized by a high degree of regional specialization, either in stockless cash crop farming, exporting most of its intensive cereal production, or in intensive livestock farming highly dependent on foreign feed imports. This agricultural model is characterized by wide nutrient and carbon cycle opening and severe environmental pollution. Based on the nutrient accounting GRAFS model, two contrasted scenarios for the French agricultural system at the 2050 horizon have recently been designed and evaluated for their capacity to meet both the national population's food demand and environmental standards in terms of water pollution. The first scenario (O/S, for opening and specialization) assumes the continuation of the current trends of intensification, specialization, and opening to international markets. The second one (A/R/D, for autonomy, reconnection, and demitarian diet) assumes a radical change toward organic farming with diversification of crop rotations, reconnection of crop and livestock farming, and reduction of the proportion of animal proteins in the human diet. Herein we calculate the budget of CO2 emissions and C sequestration in soils of these two scenarios compared with the current situation of the French agro-food system, by coupling the GRAFS and AMG models. These simulations reveal that the overall CO2 emissions balance of the O/S scenario is far higher than those of the A/R/D, namely because of the emissions associated with mineral fertilizer manufacture, and imported feed and mechanization of land management requiring a large amount of fossil fuel. As the organic carbon content of the soil is known to be highly path-dependent (in the sense that it is the inheritance of previous land use practices), we tested the effect of two rates of implementation of the two scenarios and evaluated the response time of the C soil store, which is of the order of two decades or more. This reveals that after about two-three decades following the implementation of a scenario, an equilibrium is reached with no more net soil C emission nor sequestration.

Resistance determination of the ACCase-inhibiting herbicide of clodinafop propargyl in Avena ludoviciana (Durieu), and study of their interaction using molecular docking and simulation.

Structural mutations providing herbicide resistance may cause a modification of the three dimensional structure of a protein which will lead to a decrease in the herbicide efficacy. Wild oat (Avena ludoviciana Durieu.) is an increasingly disruptive weed in areas of intensive cereal production, thus the aim of this research was to identify mutations conferring resistance to ACCase-inhibitor herbicides at greenhouse, laboratory and in silico scales. Among the selected biotypes, No. 3 in the position 1781 (Ile1781-Leu) and No. 14 in the position 2041 (Ile2041-Asn), showed resistance to ACCase-inhibitor. The above mutations were confirmed using the specific primers and PCR-based methods. Analysis of molecular docking indicated that residues of Trp1948 and Pro2001 are important in the binding site and showed remarkable variation in the mutation types. Using molecular dynamic simulation analysis, we demonstrated that mutation types changed the conformation of the enzyme. These changes resulted in compressed conformation in the active site, which limited the availability of binding herbicide-enzyme. In present, no crystallography molecular structure and modeling reported on the ACCase of plants and this study investigated interactions of clodinafop propargyl and ACCase CT domain in A. ludoviciana by modeling, docking and simulations for the first time. Totally, bioinformatics analysis as well as PCR-based method confirmed that herbicide resistance conferred by nucleotide mutations in the gene sequence.

Domestic animal production and consumption at Tall al-Handaquq South (Jordan) in the Early Bronze III

The Early Bronze Age (EBA) in the Southern Levant saw the emergence of socioeconomic inequality, fortified towns, and craft specialization. Livestock production was key to facilitating these socioeconomic changes, but the precise forms of animal husbandry and the economic contributions of domestic animal herding to EBA economies in the Southern Levant remain underexplored. Here, we investigate faunal remains recovered from Tall al-Handaquq South (THS), a walled Early Bronze III settlement located in the northern Jordan Valley. Zooarchaeological analyses indicate that small-stock (sheep and goat) herding formed the basis of subsistence and surplus production, while cattle husbandry provided much needed labour for intensive cereal production. The high relative abundance of cattle and the preference for goats, which thrive on low quality forage typical for more marginal landscapes beyond the valley floor, over sheep may indicate use of a more extensive herding strategy that kept herds off of agricultural fields while maintaining animal production. Notably, caprine management systems shifted throughout the EB III at THS from strategies emphasizing the optimal production of meat obtained from prime-aged sheep and goats to one focused on the exploitation of older animals, perhaps for fiber production. During this time, however, goats continued to outnumber sheep, possibly reflecting the longterm importance of grain production, which is expected to be reflected in the faunal record by high proportions of goats and cattle. Comparing the data from THS to other sites in the Southern Levant, the data indicate an evolution towards a greater focus on agricultural and livestock commodity production, factors that may have contributed to the abandonment of THS and, perhaps, other walled sites in the region.

Preceding cultivation of grain legumes increases cereal yields under low nitrogen input conditions

The European Union (EU) has advised to increase the production of grain legumes, both to reduce EU dependency on soybean imports from the Americas and to reduce pollution from intensive cereal production. Several studies have indicated that preceding grain legume had a positive effect on the yields of subsequent cereals; this argument being often used to promote cultivation of grain legumes. However, no quantitative synthesis of the data has been performed on a global scale to estimate the relative increases in cereal yields arisen from cultivation of preceding grain legumes. Here, we performed a meta-analysis of 1181 yields of cereals cultivated in 15 countries. The results show that the yields of cereals cultivated after grain legumes were, on the average, + 29% higher than the yields of cereals cultivated after cereals. Our findings also show that the positive effect of grain legumes decreased with the nitrogen (N) fertilization applied to subsequent cereals, then became negligible when the mean N fertilization exceeded 150 kg N ha−1. This threshold is often exceeded in European conventional cereal systems.

Agricultural intensification in Ghana: Evaluating the optimist’s case for a Green Revolution

While there are valid reasons for a renewed interest in adapting the lessons of the Asian Green Revolution to the African setting, research must go further in identifying the main, and potentially unique, drivers of agricultural intensification within and across African countries. In this study we look at the case of Ghana to identify whether fast population growth and the remarkable agricultural performance the country has enjoyed in recent years have resulted in favorable conditions for the adoption of Asian-style Green Revolution technologies. Through descriptive analysis combined with empirical assessment of the economic efficiency of agriculture in different production systems and agroecologies we are able assess the relevance of Green Revolution technologies for agricultural production in Ghana. In particular, we analyze whether fertilizer use in Ghana is associated with high population density and intensive cereal production and whether land-intensive innovations are associated with more efficient production practices. Overall, we do not find evidence of Asian-style Green Revolution agricultural intensification in Ghana; in fact, we find no correlation between population density and input intensity. We also find that labor costs still play a major role in Ghanaian agricultural development in limiting the adoption of labor-intensive technologies even in relatively high population density areas.

Current Status of Cereal Root Diseases in Western Australia Under Intensive Cereal Production and Their Comparison with the Historical Survey Conducted During 1976–1982

AbstractTwo separate surveys of root diseases of cereals in the Western Australian (WA) cereal belt were conducted: the first conducted annually for wheat and barley during 1976–1982 and the second for wheat during 2005–2007. For the 1976–1982 survey, the cereal belt was divided into 15 zones based on the location and rainfall. Sampling was representative of the actual cropping area, with both wheat and barley sampling sites selected by zone as a percentage of total sites. Over 31 000 plants were assessed from a total of 996 fields. Average take‐all incidence ranged from 3% in the northern low rainfall zone to 57% in the southern high rainfall zone. Other root diseases assessed included rhizoctonia root rot, fusarium crown rot and subcrown internode discolouration. During the 2005–2007 survey, around 20 000 plants from a total of 210 fields being intensively cropped with cereals were surveyed for take‐all, rhizoctonia root rot, fusarium crown rot, common root rot, root lesion nematode and cereal cyst nematode. The 2005–2007 survey results indicated that root and crown diseases prevailed in paddocks frequently cropped with cereals and occurred at damaging levels across all WA cropping districts surveyed. The more recent root disease survey identified that the fungal diseases rhizoctonia root rot and fusarium crown rot and the root lesion nematode were the most serious impediments to intensive cereal production, particularly in the southern region of WA. Comparing the 2005–2007 results with the previous survey of 1976–1982, the relative importance of take‐all appears to have declined over the past 30 years.

Nitrate retention and physiological adjustment of maize to soil amendment with superabsorbent polymers

Abstract Underground water pollution associated with nitrate leaching has become a major concern in areas with intensive cereal production; in areas with dry climates, water scarcity is the main limitation to crop production. We thus hypothesized that use of super absorbent polymers (SAP) may effectively increase nitrogen use efficiency by minimizing leaching and enhancing water and nitrate retention in the soil. Here, we evaluated nitrate movement in soils amended with SAP and determined changes in maize growth based on enzyme activities and physiological parameters. Nitrate retention was studied in six undisturbed soil lysimeters under different fertilizer (standard, medium or 75% and low, or 50% of standard) rates with (30 kg/ha) or without SAP. Maize yield decreased 20% under medium and 38% under low fertilizer rates but SAP application increased yield (P

Grain, meat and vegetables to feed Paris: where did and do they come from? Localising Paris food supply areas from the eighteenth to the twenty-first century

food supply to a large metropolis such as Paris involves huge fluxes of goods, which considerably impact the surrounding rural territories. Here, we present an attempt to localise Paris food supply areas, over a period of two centuries (1786, 1886, 2006), based on the analysis of data from transportation and production statistics for cereals, animal products, and fruits and vegetables, all three categories being expressed in terms of their nitrogen (i.e. protein) content. The results show contrasting trends for the three types of agricultural products. As for cereals, the Paris supply area remained for the most part restricted to the central area of the Paris basin, a region which gradually became specialised in intensive cereal production. Conversely, as animal farming had been progressively excluded from this area, regions located west and north of Paris (Brittany, Normandy, Nord-Pas-de-Calais) gradually dominated the supply of animal products to the metropolis. In addition, imported feed from South America today contributes as much as one-third of the total ration of feed in the livestock raised in these regions. For fruits and vegetables, about one-half of the Paris supply currently comes from long-distance imports, the other half coming from areas less than 200 km from Paris. As a whole, the Paris food supply area, although it has obviously enlarged in recent periods, is still anchored to an unexpected extent (about 50%) in its traditional nearby hinterland roughly coinciding with the Seine watershed, and in the regions specialised in animal farming located west and north. On the other hand, the agricultural system of the main food supply areas has considerably opened to global markets.

A lysimeter study of nitrate leaching, optimum fertilisation rate and growth responses of corn (Zea maysL.) following soil amendment with water-saving super-absorbent polymer

Nitrate leaching and the resulting groundwater contamination from intensive cereal production has become a major concern for long-term farmland efficiency and environmental sustainability in northern China. The aim of this study was to evaluate a water-saving super-absorbent polymer (SAP) for minimising NO(3)(-) leaching from soil and optimising corn growth and yield. Thirty-six undisturbed soil lysimeters were installed in a field lysimeter facility in drought-affected northern China to study the growth and yield characteristics of summer corn (Zea mays L.) as well as the amount of NO(3)-leaching losses under different fertiliser (standard, medium or 75% and low, or 50% of conventional fertilisation rate) and SAP (control, 0; level-1, 15 kg ha(-1) and level-2, 30 kg ha(-1)) treatments. Corn yield fell by 19.7% under medium and 37.7% under low fertilisation; the application of SAP increased yield significantly by 44.4% on level-1 and 80.3% on level-2. Similarly, plant height, leaf area, number of grains as well as protein, soluble sugar and starch contents in the grain also increased with SAP treatment. Application of SAP at 30 kg ha(-1) plus half of conventional fertilisation can reduce maximum (64.1%) nitrate leaching losses from soil. Application of SAP at 30 kg ha(-1) plus only half the amount of conventional fertiliser rate (150 kg urea, and 50 kg each of superphosphate and potassium sulfate) would be a more appropriate practice both for minimising nitrate leaching and sustainable corn production under the arid and semiarid conditions of northern China.

A Lysimeter Study for Leaching Losses, Sustainable Fertilization, and Growth Responses of Corn (Zea mays L.) Following Soil Amendment with a Water-Saving Superabsorbent Polymer

Nitrate leaching and the resulting ground water contamination from intensive cereal production has become a major concern for long-term farmland efficiency and environmental sustainability in northern China. The aim of this study was to evaluate a water-saving superabsorbent polymer for minimizing nutrient leaching from soil and optimizing corn growth and yield. Twenty-four undisturbed soil lysimeters (35-cm diameter and 150-cm depth) were installed in a field lysimeter facility in drought affected northern China to study the growth and yield characteristics of summer corn (Zea mays L.) as well as soil fertility and the amount of nutrient (NO3-N, P, and K) leaching losses under different fertilizer (standard, medium, or 75% and low, or 50 % of conventional fertilization rate) treatments with (30 kg ha-1) or without the application of SAP. Corn yield fell by 19.7% under medium and 37.7% under low fertilization; the application of SAP increased it significantly by 80.3%. Similarly intercellular carbon dioxide concentration, net photosynthesis and transpiration rate, relative water contents in the leaves as well as available nutrient elements in the soil also increased with SAP treatment. Application of SAP at 30 kg ha-1 plus only half of conventional fertilization can provide the same yield at the same cost but reduce nitrate leaching significantly by 64.1% compared with conventional (excessive) fertilization. At the same time P and K leaching can be reduced significantly by 12.6% and 36.8%. Application of SAP at 30 kg ha-1 plus half the amount of conventional fertilizer rate (150-kg urea, and 50 kg each of superphosphate and potassium sulfate) would be a more appropriate practice both for minimizing nutrient leaching and sustainable corn production under the arid and semiarid conditions of northern China.

A comparative analysis of rice–wheat systems in Indian Haryana and Pakistan Punjab

Intensive irrigated rice–wheat production systems have converted the north-west Indo-Gangetic Plains into South Asia's cereal basket. Their strategic importance is undermined by a slowdown in productivity growth linked to the degradation of soil and water resources. Findings from farm surveys are used to examine contrasts and similarities between rice and wheat farms, cultivation practices, productivity, and profitability in the rice–wheat belt of India's Haryana State and Pakistan's Punjab province. In Haryana average wheat and paddy yields are markedly higher, but the yield advantage is offset by higher total production costs, resulting in lower private returns. The diverging institutional environment including varying levels of intervention in produce and input markets contributed to the evolution of the Pakistani production model as relatively ‘medium input–medium output’ and the Indian production model as ‘high input–high output’. The study reiterates the need to reinvigorate productivity growth and to reduce production costs in these intensive cereal production systems while conserving natural resources such as water and limiting negative environmental impacts. The study however also raises questions about the future of current rice–wheat systems.

Role of biological nitrogen fixation in legume based cropping systems; a case study of West Africa farming systems

Nitrogen (N) has been gradually depleted from West African soils and now poses serious threats to food production. Many ways of increasing N supply (e.g. judicious use of inorganic fertilizers and nitrogen-fixing plants) have been tried in West African farming systems. Herbaceous and woody legumes commonly contribute 40–70 kg N ha−1 season. This represents about 30% of the total N applied as residues. Nevertheless and despite repeated demonstrations of the usefulness of green manures in enhancing soil fertility, their practices and adoption are still limited. Promiscuous soyabeans are being used to develop sustainable cropping systems in the moist savannah. Reliable estimates of N2 fixed by soyabeans and their residual N benefits to subsequent cereal crops in the savannah zone of southern Guinea have only infrequently been made. The actual amounts measured varied between 38 and 126 kg N ha−1 assuming that only seeds of soyabeans are removed from the plots, the net N accrual of soil nitrogen ranges between minus 8 kg N ha−1 and plus 47 kg N ha−1 depending on the soyabean cultivar. Residual soyabean N values of 10–24 kg N ha−1 (14–36% of the total N in maize) were obtained in a soyabean-maize rotation. Although cereal yields following legume cultivation have been attributed to greater N accumulation, our data show that the relative increase in maize N was smaller than the relative increase in dry-matter yield. Hence, the increased yields of maize following soybeans are not entirely due to the carry-over of N from soyabean residues (as well as to conservation of soil N) but to other rotational effects as well. It is thus clear that the Nbenefit of grain legumes to non-legumes is small compared to the level of N fertilizer use in more intensive cereal production systems but is nevertheless significant in the context of the low amounts of input in subsistence farming.

Plant communities of field boundaries in Finnish farmland

To determine the importance of field boundary habitats for farmland biodiversity, we surveyed a total of 193 boundaries from four climatically and agriculturally dissimilar regions in Finland. We measured the current plant species richness and composition of the boundaries, and based on the differences in vegetation characteristics, we describe six boundary types. The observed plant species were mainly indicators of fresh to wet soils and moderate to rich mineral nitrogen content. The most frequent species were tall, perennial monocots and dicots indicating the high productivity of thevegetation. Moreove, herbicide-tolerant species were common. No species rare for Finland were found.In animal husbandry regions, the most frequent species were sown grassland species and typical grassland weeds. In cereal production regions, fast-spreading root weeds tolerant of herbicides were the most frequent. Mean species richness was highest in the cluster Ca-lamagrostis-Phalaris (24 species (s)/boundary (b)), which we considered as representative of moist sites with some disturbance by agricultural practices. Most species-poor were the clusters Elymus-Anthriscus (14 s/b)and Elymus-Cirsium (16 s/b),both found predominantly in cereal production regions in southern Finland. Our results suggest that the biodiversity value of boundaries is lowest in the most intensive cereal production areas and highest in areas of mixed farming.;

Expected effects of devaluation on cereal production in the Sudanian Region of Mali

The Sahelian countries have been much more successful attaining higher yields of export crops, including cotton and peanuts, than with increasing yields of their cereals and other food crops. One principal explanation has been the poor economic and agricultural policy support historically given to food crops. Now this is being changed with structural adjustments, including the 1994 devaluation of the CFA. Intensive cereal production became more profitable with a lag after devaluation. In southern Mali, even highly risk-averse farmers will adopt intensive sorghum technologies, according to risk programming results. Credit can be generated internally for this activity by selling some of the livestock. Returns were very high for this intensification but its further expansion would require more internal liquidity or the expansion of credit in order to increase purchases of inorganic fertilizers.