Integrated Pest Management Technology Research Articles

IPM adoption, cooperative membership and farm economic performance

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of agricultural cooperative membership on farmers’ decisions to adopt integrated pest management (IPM) technology and to estimate the impact of IPM adoption on farm economic performance.Design/methodology/approachAn endogenous switching probit model that addresses the sample selection bias issue arising from both observed and unobserved factors is used to estimate the survey data from a sample of 481 apple households in China. A treatment effects model is employed to estimate the impact of IPM adoption on apple yields, net returns and agricultural income. In order to address the potential endogeneity associated with off-farm work variable in estimating both cooperative membership choice specification and IPM adoption specifications, a control function approach is used.FindingsThe empirical results show that cooperative membership exerts a positive and significant impact on the adoption of IPM technology. In particular, farmers’ IPM adoption decision is significantly associated with household and farm-level characteristics (e.g. education, farm size and price knowledge). IPM adoption has a positive and statistically significant impact on apple yields, net returns and agricultural income.Practical implicationsThe findings indicate that agricultural cooperatives can be a transmission route in the efforts to proliferate the adoption and diffusion of IPM technology, and increased IPM adoption tends to improve the economic performance of farm households.Originality/valueDespite the widespread evidence of health and environmental benefits associated with IPM technology, the adoption rate of this technology remains significantly low. This paper provides a first attempt by investigating to what extent and how agricultural cooperative membership affects IPM adoption and how IPM adoption influences farm economic performance.

SINERGI PENGELOLAAN LINGKUNGAN HIDUP MELALUI SISTEM PENGENDALIAN HAMA TERPADU (KASUS PADA USAHATANI BAWANG MERAH)

Environmental natural resources prepared by non-biological or abiotic, biotic or biological resources, and human resources shared resources are merged into artificial cultural resources. For that management needs to be done in synergy between these three components, and is expected to impact positively on communities around the neighborhood in particular and society in general, which ultimately is slowly but surely will be able to improve the welfare of the community. Forms of Environmental Management conducted in synergy can be the technology im-plementation of Integrated Pest Management (IPM), which combine some way to control the economic, ecological and social accountability. This research implement IPM on a red onion farming, because farming is a lot to experience problems, including the attack Pests and Diseases. The purpose of research is to analyze the technical and economic success of the implementation of IPM. In District Babakan, Cirebon. Respondents with census method making as many as 45 people, data used are primary data and secondary data, the data is tabulated and analyzed quantitatively. Results of the analysis showed that the red onion farming implement IPM technology is more advantageous and more efficient, when compared to conventional farming is done.

Farmer participatory evaluation of an IPM technology in the management of major pests and diseases of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) in Uttarakhand

Farmer participatory field trials were conducted for assessing the effects of an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) technology for the management of major pests of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.). The experiment was conducted during March to October, 2016 and 2017 at three locations, viz. Kota Kwanu, Majhgaon Kwanu and Malot Kwanu in Chakrata block of district Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India on two popular, bacterial wilt resistant tomato hybrids, viz. Abhinav and Heamsohna. The various treatments were as follows: T1, seed treatment with Trichoderma + Pseudomonas @ 20 g/kg of seeds: T2, use of FYM @ 100 Q/ha fortified with Trichoderma + Pseudomonas; T3, planting of Abhinav and Heamsohna; T4, weekly hand picking and destruction of leaves, shoots and fruits infected by late blight; T5, staking of plants; T6, four applications of cymoxanil + mancozeb @ 2 g/l at 30, 45, 60- and 75 days after planting; and T7, application of chlorantraniliprole 18.5% SC @ 0.3 ml/l at 65-days. Incidence of diseases such as late blight and bacterial wilt, and pests such as fruit borer, Helicoverpa armigera was significantly high in the control plots. The severity of pest and diseases was comparatively more in 2017 than 2016 due to conducive climatic conditions. Maximum yield (410 q and 400 q/ha) was recorded during 2016 and 2017, respectively due to IPM practices combining all possible components as compared to other treatments or control. As a result of enhanced fruit yield, the gross (Rupees 615 000/ha and Rupees 800 000/ha) and net income (Rupees 428 180/ha and Rupees 610 375/ha) were realized during 2016 and 2017, respectively. The cost benefit ratio was also maximum due to combination of all IPM components (1:2.3 and 1:3.22) both during 2016 and 2017, respectively. The IPM strategies combining all possible components proved significantly superior not only in effective management of major diseases and pests but also helped in realizing higher productivity and thereby enhanced income of tomato growers in remote tribal regions of Dehradun, Uttarakhand.

Economic Impact of Practicing IPM Technology on Bitter Gourd (<i>Momordica charantia</i> L.) Production in Comilla District of Bangladesh

The present study was conducted to assess the economic impact of practicing Integrated Pest Management technology on bitter gourd production in Chandina upazila under Comilla district of Bangladesh. Sample survey was carried out over 70 bitter gourd producing farms. Out of 70 farmers, 35 for IPM and 35 for Non-IPM farmers were selected. The study revealed that majority of the farmers had moderately favorable attitude towards IPM technology for producing bitter gourd as shown by farmers’ attitude index. IPM farmers earned more profit than Non-IPM farmers on bitter gourd production. The average total cost of bitter gourd production per hectare was estimated at about Tk 3,68,335 and 4,44,508 for IPM and Non-IPM farmers, respectively. The average gross returns per hectare were found at about Tk 8,60,016; 8,55,642; and 8,15,947 for marginal, small and medium IPM farmers, respectively. The same were Tk 8,22,654; 7,53,373 and 7,48,255 for marginal, small, and medium Non-IPM farmers, respectively. The estimated BCR was higher for IPM farmers (2.29) than Non-IPM farmers (1.69). Partial budget analysis showed that IPM technology was more profitable and net benefit was Tk 1,61,557. Although bitter gourd production was profitable, farmers faced several problems such as lack of training and technical knowledge, inadequate extension services, lack of marketing facilities etc. in using IPM technology.The Agriculturists 2017; 15(2) 11-23

Returns to research and outreach for integrated pest management of western flower thrips infesting French bean and tomato in Kenya

AbstractThrips,Frankliniella occidentalis(Pergande), is a major invasive pest that causes extensive yield losses in French bean and tomato in Kenya. Thrips management is based on the application of pesticides. In addition to increased environmental risks associated with pesticides, frequent use of these chemicals increases production costs and pesticide resistance. Furthermore, exports are restricted due to non-compliance to maximum residue levels in important consumer export markets, especially the European Union (EU). This study was conducted to estimate the potential benefits of the effectiveness of theicipe-developed strategy for control of western flower thrips before dissemination of the technology in Kenya, using the economic surplus model. We calculated the benefit–cost ratio, the Net Present Value (NPV) and the Internal Rate of Return (IRR) using Cost–Benefit Analysis (CBA). Assuming a maximum conservative adoption rate of 1% and a 10% discount rate for the base deterministic scenario, the NPV of the research was estimated at US$2.2 million, with an IRR of 23% and a BCR of 2.46. Sensitivity analyses indicated that the NPV, IRR and BCR increased at an increasing rate as adoption rates increased. However, as elasticities of supply and demand increased, the NPV, IRR and BCR increased at a decreasing rate. The findings demonstrate that farmers from developing countries can gain when they obtain access to suitable pest management innovations such as integrated pest management technologies. Consequently, investment in IPM technologies for suppression of western flower thrips should be enhanced.

Entomotoxicity of Oil Extract of <i>Acacia auriculiformis</i> (A. Cunn. Ex Benth) Used as Protectant against Infestation of <i>Callosobruchus maculatus</i> (F.) on Cowpea Seed

The insecticidal efficacy of Acacia auriculiformis oil extract in the laboratory at ambient temperature of 28±3 o C and 75±5% relative humidity. The oil of the plant was made by cold extract using ethanol as solvent. The oil was tested at 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5% concentration per 20 g of cowpea. The mortality of the insect was observed at 24, 48, 72 and 96 h post treatment. The oviposition and adult emergence of the insect as well as the seed damage, seed weight loss and weevil perforation index were observed. The result obtained showed that only 5% concentration of the oil achieved above 50% mortality of the insect at 96 h post treatment and its effect was significantly different from other concentrations and the controls. 4.91% of the oil was required to achieve 50% mortality of the insect within 96 h of application as reflected by the regression probit analysis. Likewise, the oil significantly reduced oviposition and adult emergence of the insect and as well reduced the seed damage, weight loss and WPI of the cowpea seeds. 5% concentration of the oil recorded lowest oviposition, adult emergence, seed damage, weight loss and WPI of 47.00, 24.08%, 17.77%, 10.45% and 20.93% respectively. There was great correlation between the adult mortality of the insect and the oviposition rate as well as between the adult emergence and seed weight loss as adult mortality and emergence determined 68.4% and 95.7% of the oviposition and adult emergence respectively. Since the oil of the plant has displayed high insecticidal potential, it could be incorporated into the integrated pest management technology.

Attitude of the farmers towards integrated pest management technology programme on cotton

Cotton is one of the important commercial crops and the principal raw material for Indian textile industry. Although, there has been significant growth in production, productivity and quality of cotton during the last fifty years, it is still below the world average. In spite of having 28 per cent of the world acreage under cotton, India accounts for only 14-15 per cent of the global cotton production, while our productivity per hectare is lowering around 250-260 kg lint/ha for the last few years with marginal ups and down. Cotton is a crop that provide substratum to about 1326 species of insects from sowing to maturity in different cotton growing areas around the globe. Of these, 8 per cent (162 species) are considered as pests responsible for enormous loss to cotton yield. The above numbers of pests results in failure of cotton crop and it is feared that cotton production might fall down further in the subsequent years if effective steps are not taken to mitigate pest menace in cotton. . In order to minimize the indiscriminate and judicious use of chemical pesticides, integrated pest management (IPM) has been enshrined as cardinal principle of plant protection. In these aspects, the behaviour of the farmers toward the technology is very crucial. Since, extension educational efforts aim at helping the farmers to produce desirable changes in their attitude and adoption behaviour, it is imperative for an extension worker to have knowledge of characteristics and attitude of his audience towards integrated pest management technology on cotton. It is hoped that the attitude scale developed for the study would be useful to other researchers to plan similar studies. Moreover, the results pertaining to attitude of the cotton growers may help the extension workers to plan appropriate strategy for effective transfer of IPM technology. According to the study, it was observed that majority of the cotton growers (62.00 %) belonged to the middle age group i.e. Between 30 to 46 years followed by young (24.00 %) age group. Most (38.00 %) of the respondents were found literate having formal education level upto higher secondary and diploma. As regarding holding, majority (60.00 %) of the respondents had medium size of land holding, 27.00 per cent had small holding, followed by 13.00 per cent had large size of land holding between 2.01 to 4.00 ha. The majority (78.00 %) of the cotton growers having medium farming experience i.e. 10 to 17 years. The maximum cotton growers (52.00 %) were found in medium social participation category (Score between 5 to 8) followed by 32.00 per cent in low social participation category. As far as annual income is concerned, it was found that 64.00 per cent of the respondents fell in medium annual income group (Rs.55,001 to Rs. 92,500) while, 22.00 per cent respondents had high annual income level. The majority (56.00 %) of the cotton growers had fragmented of land holding to 'medium' extent i.e. at 2-3 places. Regarding risk orientation, it was revealed that maximum proportion (57.00 %) of the respondents had preferred to take risk to the 'medium' extent. It was found that majority of the cotton growers (56.00 %) had developed 'favourable' attitude towards integrated pest management technology programme on cotton. While, only 15.00 per cent of them had 'less favourable' attitude towards integrated pest management technology programme on cotton. However, 29.00 per cent of the respondents had developed 'most favourable' attitude towards integrated pest management technology programme on cotton.

Increasing Efficacy of Eucalyptus Oil as Repellent Against Rattus rattus by Controlled Release Through Encapsulated Wax Blocks

Plant based non-lethal repellents are most suitable for rodent control. Present studies were conducted to increase the efficacy of eucalyptus oil as repellent against black rat, Rattus rattus by its controlled release through encapsulated wax blocks. Mature and healthy R. rattus of both sexes were exposed to 5, 10 and 20 % eucalyptus oil encapsulated in wax blocks in laboratory pens in bi-choice tests. Each concentration was applied through three different modes of application i.e. daily, once a week, and every second day per week. Repellent effect of the oil was assessed based on food consumption from treated and untreated sides of a chamber for four days a week. Food consumption was found to be significantly (P ≤ 0.05) low from treatment side as compared to that observed on untreated side at all the three concentrations tested indicating repellent effect of the eucalyptus oil against R. rattus. Percent repellency with eucalyptus oil encapsulated in wax blocks at all the three concentrations was found to be similar. Being the minimum effective concentration, present studies suggest the use of 5 % eucalyptus oil encapsulated in wax blocks as repellent against R. rattus. This method may be used as part of integrated pest management technology for managing rats in enclosed store houses.

Gendered and Contextual Factors in the Design of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Programs for Tomato Growers in East Africa

The Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Collaborative Research Support Program in East Africa has been using a farmer participatory IPM strategy with small-scale tomato growers at on-farm research sites in Kenya and Tanzania since 2004. Understanding local farmer knowledge of agricultural production, including both gendered and contextual factors, is a hallmark of participatory approaches, and important to the design and development of appropriate location-specific IPM technologies. The purpose of this study was to compare and contrast gender and contextual influences on tomato production farm-level decision-making and marketing practices. The results indicate that regardless of context, gender influenced access to resources and this influenced production quantity and decision-making. However, contextual differences predominated suggesting that “one-size does not fit all” and that planned interventions need to be tailored to specific contexts in which gender relations unfold. Contextual similarities in the production of higher value marketed horticultural crops, including female cash crop production and the prevalent use of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, provides evidence that the gender-specific nature of traditional African farming is transitioning. That extension agents were relatively minor sources of information suggests that horticultural cash crop production is an important contextual basis for differentiating the demand for IPM programs.

MULTIPLE TACTICS OF INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT FOR THRIPS ON STRAWBERRY PLANTATION

In management of thrips on strawberry, farmers usually use synthetic insecticides. Synthetic insecticide is not effective to control thrips and produce residual effect on crops. Insecticidal residue is dangerous for human, natural enemies and environment widely. Therefore, it is necessary to find an alternative thrips pest control on strawberries, through integrated pest manage-ment (IPM) implementation. Research was aimed to determine the effect of IPM technology for Thrips sp. on strawberry plantation. Research was conducted on strawberry plantation by comparing IPM and conventional plots, in Kusuma Agrowisata Batu from April to July 2009. Variables were used such as the number of larvae, adult population and damage intensity caused by Thrips sp., and fruit production. Data was analyzed by t-test on 5%. The results showed that the average larva and adult population of Thrips sp. on IPM plot were higher than conventional plot, 1.12 and 0.50 for larva and 0.87 and 0.27 for adults respectively. The damage intensity of strawberry crops on IPM plot was higher than conventional plot, 11.69 and 5.98% respectively. Based on average fruit production, IPM plot was higher than conventional plot, 48.32 g and 39.24 g respectively.

Mapping gendered pest management knowledge, practices, and pesticide exposure pathways in Ghana and Mali

Global food security challenges demand an understanding of farmers’ gendered practices and perspectives. This research draws on data from a quantitative survey and qualitative methods to explore gender differences related to farmers’ practices, perceptions, and knowledge of pesticides and other pest management practices in tomato growing regions of Ghana and Mali. A pathways approach based on participatory mapping integrates findings and reveals gender differences in labor and knowledge at different stages of tomato production. Farmers in both countries are heavily reliant on pesticides, but there are also differences in pest management knowledge and practices between them. In Mali, farmers are more familiar with Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices, but less aware of potential health risks of pesticides and more likely to engage in dangerous agro-chemical practices. In both countries, women are significantly less aware of pesticide dangers and IPM techniques than men and exposed to pesticides though a variety of pathways. We argue that the gender division of labor and differences in access to resources, information, and power between the two sites leads to gendered pesticide exposure pathways that are often unseen by the biological scientists who tend to focus on the field. Gender inequalities in knowledge and unsafe practices were particularly apparent in Mali compared to Ghana, possibly due to the lower literacy rates and decision making power of women and their narrower range of involvement in tomato production. The article concludes with gender sensitive recommendations to improve IPM research methods, trainings, and technology diffusion.

Development of Multi-Operation Robot for Productivity Enhancement of Intelligent Greenhouses: For Construction of Integrated Pest Management Technology for Intelligent Greenhouses

Development of Multi-Operation Robot for Productivity Enhancement of Intelligent Greenhouses: For Construction of Integrated Pest Management Technology for Intelligent Greenhouses

Adoption and intensity of integrated pest management (IPM) vegetable farming in Bangladesh: an approach to sustainable agricultural development

The common use of pesticide is a major challenge in trying to accomplish sustainable agriculture. Farming systems based on integrated pest management (IPM) technologies can reduce the use of pesticides to a great extent without causing harm to the yield. Therefore, Bangladesh, like many developing countries, launched IPM technologies to reduce the adverse effects of pesticides in social, economic and environmental aspects. This study made an attempt to analyze the level of IPM adoption and the intensity of IPM practices by vegetable farmers of Narsingdi district, Bangladesh. A total of 331 vegetable producers were sampled. The results revealed that less than one-third of the farmers (30 %) adopted IPM and they varied in terms of the number or type of practices. The use of logistic regression model in this study was to identify the significant factors of IPM adoption, explore several factors, including farmer field school, land ownership status, perception toward IPM, use of improved varieties and extension contact. Furthermore, the linear regression model showed that vegetable cultivation area, farmers’ age, household size, land ownership status and perception toward IPM are necessary in the adoption intensity of IPM practices. This study also made an attempt to clarify the role of these factors in the adoption behavior of IPM practices in vegetable farming. The findings could be used to formulate better policies toward increasing the adoption of this sustainable approach.

TINGKAT ADOPSI TEKNOLOGI PENGENDALIAN HAMA TERPADU PETANI PADI (Studi Kasus Di Kecamatan Sungai Kakap Kabupaten Kubu Raya)

Plant Pest Organisms disruption on rice cultivation is increasing, the control carried out by the farmers have not succeeded to the maximum, the effects of climate change are difficult to predict. Both can be very threatening productivity of rice plants in the district Kakap River. Control methods that have been recommended by the PP. No.6 1995, protection of plants which is the basic foundation for addressing attacks Plant Pest Organisms Disorder with Integrated Pest Management system. The application of technology by farmers properly and sustainably need to be known, the study aims: (1) to determine the level of adoption of these technologies participating farmers. (2) to determine the factors associated with the level of farmer adoption of Integrated Pest Management technology participants. The elements of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) technology are; utilization of natural enemies, agroecosystem management, mechanical physical control, pesticide control and control the group. Variables related to the level of adoption of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) technology participating farmers are; farmers age, formal education, non-formal education, farming experience, vast arable land, the ownership status of claim, cosmopolitan and income of farmer. The descriptive method of research that studies the problems of the farming community, relations activities, attitudes, outlook and ongoing process. Population census method used by the four groups of farmers who have been following the activities of the SL-IPM as many as 100 people, to analyze the data using Chi Square test. The results of the study generally indicates the level of participant farmer adoption of IPM technologies in the medium categories means participant farmers of IPM technology is not according with the recommendation. So the IPM technology training through the SL-IPM still needed to farmer groups. Keywords: Plant Pest Organisms disruption, level of adoption, IPM technology

ADOPTION OF INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT AMONG FRUIT TREES' GROWERS IN JORDAN

Integrated pest management (IPM) is used to control pests’ damage by the most economical means and the least possible hazards to human and environment. Interest in measuring the degree of IPM adoption has increased over time. Extent and level of IPM adoption in Jordan are still largely unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the factors affecting IPM adoption among fruit trees’ growers in Jordan. For this purpose, Jordanian fruit trees’ growers were questioned about their social aspects, types of pests encountered, and IPM knowledge, practices and resources by conducting a countrywide survey of growers during 2014. The results indicated that the majority of the respondents (68%) have never heard about IPM and not sure what IPM is, and only 2.5% were regularly using IPM. Lack of growers’ information and knowledge about IPM (73%) has first priority of IPM adoption. Data on how often growers monitor pests, most common methods for pests monitoring, testing soil, keeping records, reasons of using chemical control and knowledge of pesticides’ side effects are herein presented. The results showed that a number of cultural and mechanical control techniques are commonly utilized by growers. Pesticides' application is a decision based on the safety period by the responedents. There is no single source of information which growers rely upon for pest management in their farms. Almost 57% of the respondents indicated that IPM is neither required nor recommended, only 20% of them had been involved in IPM training program, and 77% would like to change and adopt IPM. Familiarity with IPM had a significant negative correlation with farmer’s age and a positive on with education. There was a positive significant correlation between willingness to change to IPM and involvement in IPM training. In conclusion, the findings of this study will serve as a catalyst for the adoption of IPM technology and will, therefore, contribute to the sustainability of agriculture in Jordan.

Personal and Socio-Economic Factors Affecting the Adoption of Sweet Potato Production Technology by Farmers in South-East Zone of Nigeria

Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L) Lam) is a very important staple carbohydrate food in sub-saharan Africa, and reputed for its capacity to tolerate marginal environments as well as high energy-fixing efficiency to produce high dry matter at a short period of time. It produces much dry matter per unit of time and contains high levels of vitamins A and C. Apart from the roots, the young leaves serve as green vegetable for man whereas the leaves and vines are cherished as fodder and hay by livestock. Sweet potato production technologies have been developed by the National Root Crops Research Institute, (NRCR) Umudike, and transferred to farmers in Nigeria in conjunction with state Agricultural Development Programmes. This study assessed the levels of awareness and adoption of the sweet potato technology disseminated by NRCRI to farmers and also determined the factors affecting the adoption of the technology. The multistage sampling technique was used in selecting the respondents using structured interview schedule as instrument. Data were collected from 270 respondents. The findings showed that the levels of awareness and adoption of the technologies were high. Age, education, riming experience, household size and farm size were factors that significantly influenced adoption, while the constraining factors to increased adoption of the technology were grouped into production complexity problems, economic problems, poor technical information and pathological problems. The study recommended the intensification of the dissemination of rapid vine multiplication techniques like the 2-node vine cutting technique, and rapid transfer of the integrated pest management technology on sweetpotato.Key words: Technology adoption, sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas

Designing an IPM Research Strategy to Benefit Poor Producers and Consumers in Honduras

Agricultural research organizations face pressure to justify investments in agricultural research and need tools to allocate their resources such that the resulting research portfolio has the largest impact across multiple objectives. These tools should use available information so that the allocation exercise is flexible and low cost. This paper describes a simple mechanism for assessing ex-ante impacts of agricultural research on population subgroups. Economic surplus analysis is combined with household data to predict the impacts of agricultural research in integrated pest management technologies for eggplants, onions, peppers, and tomatoes on overall efficiency and poverty reduction in Honduras.

Adoption, Impact and Discontinuance of Integrated Pest Management Technologies for Pigeon Pea in South India

The adoption and impact of integrated pest management (IPM) were examined for pigeon pea cultivation in Andhra Pradesh, India. Summer ploughing and spraying of Neem Seed Kernel Extract (NSKE) were the most regularly adopted components of IPM for pigeon pea. A logistic regression analysis showed that age, education, participation in community-based organizations, ability to recognize the insect pests, and farm size influenced the decision to adopt IPM significantly. There were variations in the extent of IPM adoption among farmers. The adoption of IPM led to reduced use of insecticides and increased net returns. Furthermore, the use of new-generation insecticides led to a discontinuation of IPM practices.

How agro-ecological research helps to address food security issues under new IPM and pesticide reduction policies for global crop production systems

Drivers behind food security and crop protection issues are discussed in relation to food losses caused by pests. Pests globally consume food estimated to feed an additional one billion people. Key drivers include rapid human population increase, climate change, loss of beneficial on-farm biodiversity, reduction in per capita cropped land, water shortages, and EU pesticide withdrawals under policies relating to 91/414 EEC. IPM (Integrated Pest Management) will be compulsory for all EU agriculture by 2014 and is also being widely adopted globally. IPM offers a 'toolbox' of complementary crop- and region-specific crop protection solutions to address these rising pressures. IPM aims for more sustainable solutions by using complementary technologies. The applied research challenge now is to reduce selection pressure on single solution strategies, by creating additive/synergistic interactions between IPM components. IPM is compatible with organic, conventional, and GM cropping systems and is flexible, allowing regional fine-tuning. It reduces pests below economic thresholds utilizing key 'ecological services', particularly biocontrol. A recent global review demonstrates that IPM can reduce pesticide use and increase yields of most of the major crops studied. Landscape scale 'ecological engineering', together with genetic improvement of new crop varieties, will enhance the durability of pest-resistant cultivars (conventional and GM). IPM will also promote compatibility with semiochemicals, biopesticides, precision pest monitoring tools, and rapid diagnostics. These combined strategies are urgently needed and are best achieved via multi-disciplinary research, including complex spatio-temporal modelling at farm and landscape scales. Integrative and synergistic use of existing and new IPM technologies will help meet future food production needs more sustainably in developed and developing countries, in an era of reduced pesticide availability. Current IPM research gaps are identified and discussed.

Effect of agro-ecosystem on the occurrence of the rice root-knot nematode Meloidogyne graminicola on rice in Myanmar

Two surveys were carried out during 2009. The first survey was during the dry summer season (mid-January to mid-May) in 450 rice fields from ten regions representing the summer-irrigated, lowland rice ecosystem in the lower Ayeyarwady delta area of Myanmar. The second survey was during the rainy (monsoon) season (mid-May to mid-October) in 102 rice fields from three regions representing the rainfed upland rice ecosystem in the northern hilly area of Myanmar. Soil and root samples were collected from 552 rice fields from 15 locally cultivated rice varieties in lowland and upland rice ecosystems. The frequency of occurrence of Meloidogyne graminicola was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in the lowland compared with the upland rice ecosystem (78 vs 9%, respectively). On average, both the population density and the root galling index of M. graminicola in the lowland rice (289 J2/g root and 4.1, respectively) were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than in the upland rice (4 J2/g root and 1.2, respectively). In lowland rice, the frequency of occurrence of M. graminicola was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in the delayed irrigation compared with the early irrigation (87 vs 54%, respectively). Similarly, both the average nematode population density and mean galling index in delayed irrigation (347 J2/g root and 4.5, respectively) were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than in early irrigation (46 J2/g root and 1.2, respectively). M. graminicola is the major pest of the summer-irrigated, lowland rice ecosystem in Myanmar. Further research is needed for development of integrated pest management technologies to maintain a profitable rice industry in Myanmar.