Total Carotenoid Intake Research Articles

Carotenoid intake and head and neck cancer: a pooled analysis in the International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortium.

Food and nutrition play an important role in head and neck cancer (HNC) etiology; however, the role of carotenoids remains largely undefined. We explored the relation of HNC risk with the intake of carotenoids within the International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortium. We pooled individual-level data from 10 case-control studies conducted in Europe, North America, and Japan. The analysis included 18,207 subjects (4414 with oral and pharyngeal cancer, 1545 with laryngeal cancer, and 12,248 controls), categorized by quintiles of carotenoid intake from natural sources. Comparing the highest with the lowest quintile, the risk reduction associated with total carotenoid intake was 39% (95% CI 29-47%) for oral/pharyngeal cancer and 39% (95% CI 24-50%) for laryngeal cancer. Intakes of β-carotene equivalents, β-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, and lutein plus zeaxanthin were associated with at least 18% reduction in the rate of oral and pharyngeal cancer (95% CI 6-29%) and 17% reduction in the rate of laryngeal cancer (95% CI 0-32%). The overall protective effect of carotenoids on HNC was stronger for subjects reporting greater alcohol consumption (p<0.05). The odds ratio for the combined effect of low carotenoid intake and high alcohol or tobacco consumption versus high carotenoid intake and low alcohol or tobacco consumption ranged from 7 (95% CI 5-9) to 33 (95% CI 23-49). A diet rich in carotenoids may protect against HNC. Persons with both low carotenoid intake and high tobacco or alcohol are at substantially higher risk of HNC.

Evaluating the relationship between plasma and skin carotenoids and reported dietary intake in elementary school children to assess fruit and vegetable intake

Accurate assessment of dietary intake of children can be challenging due to the limited reliability of current dietary assessment methods. Plasma carotenoid concentration has been used to assess fruit and vegetable intake, but this testing is rarely conducted in school settings in children. Resonance Raman spectroscopy (RRS) is emerging as a useful method to objectively assess fruit and vegetable intake. This methodology has been validated in adults, but limited work has been done in children, particularly in the school setting. The purpose of this research is to further validate the RRS methodology in children. Children (9–12year) participating in a school-based intervention were recruited. Plasma carotenoids were quantified using HPLC, skin carotenoid status was measured using RRS, and dietary intake of carotenoids was measured with the Block Food Frequency Questionnaire Ages 8–17. Total plasma carotenoid concentrations and skin carotenoid intensities were strongly correlated (r=0.62, p<0.001, n=38). Reported total carotenoid intake correlated with skin carotenoids (r=0.40, p<0.0001, n=128). Skin carotenoid status as measured by RRS can be a strong predictor of plasma carotenoid status and dietary intake of carotenoids in children. RRS may be used as a valid, non-invasive, and useful method to assess fruit and vegetable intakes in this population.

Procurement of β-carotene, lycopene, lutein and zeaxanthin in households of Brazil’s urban areas

An assessment was made of the consumer accessibility by income to carotenoids in the eleven major Brazilian urban centers. The consumption data published by the POF (National Household Budget Survey, 1995-1996) and the Brazilian database on food carotenoids provided the basis for the study. The USDA-NCC Carotenoid Database for US foods was used whenever the carotenoid content was not found locally. Prudent individual daily intakes of beta-carotene (3 to 6mg), pro-vitamins A (5.2 to 6mg) and total carotenoids (9 to 18mg) were far from attained by the poorer households in all of the regions studied, but the availability rose as the level of income increased in all regions. The principal foods identified, which significantly contributed to the carotenoid supply were: (β-carotene) carrots, squash, mango and tomato, (lycopene) tomato, tomato sauce, watermelon and papaya, (lutein and zeaxanthin) corn flour, kale, lettuce and orange. The study suggests that consumption of carotenogenic foods in Brazil may have been low at the time, despite the wide natural distribution and abundance in the country. The implications that low consumption of carotenogenic foods may have on public health came to be better known in more recent years, but the data should be useful when comparing with the 2002/2003 POF.

Dietary intake of carotenoids and risk of type 2 diabetes

Background and aimsCarotenoids may reduce diabetes risk, due to their antioxidant properties. However, the association between dietary carotenoids intake and type 2 diabetes risk is still unclear. Therefore, the objective of this study was to examine whether higher dietary carotenoid intakes associate with reduced type 2 diabetes risk. Methods and resultsData from 37,846 participants of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition- Netherlands study were analyzed. Dietary intakes of β-carotene, α-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, lutein & zeaxanthin and the sum of these carotenoids were assessed using a validated food frequency questionnaire. Incident type 2 diabetes was mainly self-reported, and verified against general practitioner information. Mean ±SD total carotenoid intake was 10 ± 4 mg/day. During a mean ±SD follow-up of 10 ± 2years, 915 incident cases of type 2 diabetes were ascertained. After adjustment for age, sex, diabetes risk factors, dietary intake, waist circumference and BMI, higher β-carotene intakes associated inversely with diabetes risk [Hazard Ratio quartile 4 versus quartile 1 (HRQ4): 0.78 (95%CI:0.64,0.95), P-linear trend 0.01]. For α-carotene, a borderline significant reduced risk was observed, with a HRQ4 of 0.85 (95%CI:0.70,1.03), and P-linear trend 0.05. β-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, lutein & zeaxanthin, and the sum of all carotenoids did not associate with diabetes risk. ConclusionsThis study shows that diets high in β-carotene and α-carotene are associated with reduced type 2 diabetes in generally healthy men and women.

Single v. multiple measures of skin carotenoids by resonance Raman spectroscopy as a biomarker of usual carotenoid status

Resonance Raman spectroscopy (RRS) is a non-invasive method of assessing carotenoid status in the skin, which has been suggested as an objective indicator of fruit/vegetable intake. The present study assessed agreement and identified predictors of single v. multiple RRS measures of skin carotenoid status. A total of seventy-four participants had their skin carotenoid status measured in the palm of the hand by RRS at six time points over 6 months. Questionnaires were administered to collect information on demographic, lifestyle and dietary data. Mean age of the participants was 36.6 years, 62.2% were female, 83.8% Caucasian and 85.1% were non-smoking at baseline. There was a good agreement between a single measure of skin carotenoids by RRS and multiple measures (weighted κ = 0.80; 95% CI 0.72, 0.88). The same variables were significantly associated with carotenoid status based on single or multiple measures, including a positive association with intake of total carotenoids (P< 0.01) and an inverse association with season of measurement (P≤ 0.05). The exception was recent sun exposure, which emerged as a significant predictor of lower carotenoid status only when using multiple RRS measures (P≤ 0.01). A single RRS measure was reasonably accurate at classifying usual skin carotenoid status. Researchers using RRS may want to take into account other factors that are associated with the biomarker, including season of measurement and recent sun exposure.

The Association of Antioxidants and Cognition in the Nurses' Health Study

The authors examined long-term antioxidant intake in relation to cognitive decline among older women. Beginning in 1980, Nurses' Health Study (NHS) participants completed dietary assessments every 4 years; in 1995-2001, 16,010 participants aged ≥70 years completed initial cognitive assessments, which were repeated 3 times at 2-year intervals. Long-term antioxidant intake was averaged from 1980 through the time of initial cognitive interviews. Multivariable-adjusted linear regression was used to estimate mean differences in rates of cognitive decline across categories of vitamin E, vitamin C, and carotenoid intake; statistical tests were 2-sided. No associations were evident for vitamin E or total carotenoid intake and cognitive decline (e.g., after multivariable adjustment, P-trend = 0.44 and P-trend = 0.51, respectively, for a global composite score averaging all 6 cognitive tests), although higher lycopene intake and lower vitamin C intake were related to slower cognitive decline. In alternative analyses of overall cognitive status at older ages (averaging all 4 cognitive assessments), results for vitamins E and C were generally null, but higher carotenoid intake was related to better cognition. Overall, long-term vitamin E and C intakes were not consistently related to cognition, although greater consumption of carotenoids may have cognitive benefits in older adults.

Contribution of violaxanthin, neoxanthin, phytoene and phytofluene to total carotenoid intake: Assessment in Luxembourg

Dietary carotenoid intake has been associated with a low incidence of several chronic diseases, including cardiovascular complications, cancer, and macular degeneration. While food composition and intake of some carotenoids such as β-carotene and lycopene is frequently available, information on the contribution of less studied epoxycarotenoids such as neoxanthin, violaxanthin, and phytoene/phytofluene, is scant. The present study describes the assessment of ten individual carotenoids in frequently consumed food items and estimates their contribution to total carotenoid intake in Luxembourg. For this purpose, 50 frequently consumed food items were collected from local groceries, and combined with food consumption data obtained from the first epidemiological Luxembourgish cardio-vascular risk factor study (ORISCAV-LUX). Highest epoxycarotenoid content was found in bell peppers (4.5mg/100g), highest amount of phytoene/phytofluene in apricot (9.6mg/100g) and tomato ketchup (4.5mg/100g). National daily per capita intake was assessed as 7.6mg α- and β-carotene, 2.0mg phytoene, 1.8mg lycopene, 1.5mg lutein, 1.4mg β-cryptoxanthin, 1.2mg violaxanthin, 0.7mg phytoene, 0.5mg neoxanthin, and 0.3mg zeaxanthin, with 10% of total daily carotenoid intake from epoxycarotenoids and 16% from phytoene/phytofluene. While intake in Luxembourg appears to be comparable to other European data, this study highlights the importance of taking less frequently analysed carotenoids into account for determining total intake.

Abstract A81: Carotenoid intake and risk of colorectal adenomas in a cohort of male health professionals

Abstract Background: Carotenoids have been hypothesized to reduce the development of colorectal adenomas through their antioxidant and provitamin A properties. However, only a few studies have examined these associations. Method: In the Health Professionals Follow-up Study, a prospective cohort study, 4,448 cases of colorectal adenoma were identified among the 29,248 men who reported receiving a lower bowel endoscopy between 1986 and 2006. Participants completed food frequency questionnaires every 4 years; dietary information was cumulatively updated. When examining the overall effect of total carotenoid intake, we used a total carotenoid score created by summing the quintile levels for each individual carotenoid to take into account different intake levels across specific carotenoids. The associations between α-carotene, β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, and lutein/zeaxanthin intakes and risk of colorectal adenomas overall and by location and stage were investigated using multivariate logistic regression models. Results: β-carotene, lycopene and lutein/zeaxanthin intakes and the total carotenoid score were inversely associated with risk of colorectal adenomas. The multivariate odds ratios (95% CI) comparing the highest quintile of intake with the lowest were 0.81 (0.72-0.91) for β-carotene, 0.78 (0.70-0.87) for lycopene, 0.84 (0.76-0.94) for lutein/zeaxanthin, and 0.85 (0.76-0.95) for the total carotenoid score. Associations for α-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin intakes were null. For intakes of β-carotene, lycopene, lutein/zeaxanthin and the total carotenoid score, for comparisons of the highest versus lowest quintile of intake, significant 22-32% lower risks were observed for adenomas of the distal colon and rectum but weaker, nonsignificant associations were observed for adenomas of the proximal colon. However, the differences by adenoma site were nonsignificant for each carotenoid (all p-values, test for common effects ≥ 0.14). The association for each carotenoid did not vary significantly by smoking status or alcohol consumption (all p-values, test for interaction≥ 0.15). However, among nondrinkers, the multivariate odds ratio (95%CI) comparing the highest vs lowest quintile were 0.64 (0.46-0.89) for -carotene and 0.70 (0.51-0.95) for lutein/zeaxanthin whereas inverse associations were not observed among alcohol drinkers. When smoking status and alcohol consumption was considered simultaneously, a synergistic interaction between smoking status, alcohol consumption, and carotenoid intake and colorectal adenoma risk was not observed for each carotenoid (all p-values, test for interaction≥ 0.24). For example, for -carotene, the most commonly examined carotenoid, the multivariate odds ratios (95% CI) comparing the highest versus lowest quintile were 0.64 (0.41-1.01) for non-smokers/nondrinkers and 0.86 (0.66-1.12) for current smokers/men drinking at least 15 grams of alcohol/day (p-value, test for interaction = 0.57). The association for each carotenoid did not vary by stage (all p-values, test for common effects ≥ 0.15). Conclusion: This study provides modest evidence that foods high in carotenoids may reduce the risk of colorectal adenomas, particularly of the distal colon and rectum. Citation Information: Cancer Prev Res 2010;3(12 Suppl):A81.

Measurement Error of Dietary Self-Report in Intervention Trials

Dietary intervention trials aim to change dietary patterns of individuals. Participating in such trials could impact dietary self-report in divergent ways: Dietary counseling and training on portion-size estimation could improve self-report accuracy; participant burden could increase systematic error. Such intervention-associated biases could complicate interpretation of trial results. The authors investigated intervention-associated biases in reported total carotenoid intake using data on 3,088 breast cancer survivors recruited between 1995 and 2000 and followed through 2006 in the Women's Healthy Eating and Living Study, a randomized intervention trial. Longitudinal data from 2 self-report methods (24-hour recalls and food frequency questionnaires) and a plasma carotenoid biomarker were collected. A flexible measurement error model was postulated. Parameters were estimated in a Bayesian framework by using Markov chain Monte Carlo methods. Results indicated that the validity (i.e., correlation with "true" intake) of both self-report methods was significantly higher during follow-up for intervention versus nonintervention participants (4-year validity estimates: intervention = 0.57 for food frequency questionnaires and 0.58 for 24-hour recalls; nonintervention = 0.42 for food frequency questionnaires and 0.48 for 24-hour recalls). However, within- and between-instrument error correlations during follow-up were higher among intervention participants, indicating an increase in systematic error. Diet interventions can impact measurement errors of dietary self-report. Appropriate statistical methods should be applied to examine intervention-associated biases when interpreting results of diet trials.

Polymorphisms in genes involved in oxidative stress and their interactions with lifestyle factors on skin cancer risk

Polymorphisms in genes involved in oxidative stress and their interactions with lifestyle factors on skin cancer risk

Dietary intake and plasma status of total carotenoids are inversely associated with depressive symptomatology in the Boston Puerto Rican Health Study

Antioxidant nutrients may play important roles in affective disorders, including depression. We examined associations of dietary intake and plasma status of total carotenoids with depressive symptomatology among 1216 Puerto Rican adults in the greater Boston area, aged 45 to 75 years. Depressive symptomatology was defined by Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES‐D) score ≥16 or use of antidepressant medication. Intake of total carotenoids was inversely associated with CES‐D score (β = ‐4.2; P &lt;0.001) after adjustment for age, sex, education, plasma cholesterol, vitamin B6, vitamin C and homocysteine, smoking, BMI and energy intake, using censored normal regression to account for antidepressant medication use. Similar association was observed for plasma carotenoids (β = ‐2.8; P &lt;0.001). Further, both dietary intake and plasma status of total carotenoids were associated with lower risks of depressive symptomatology (odds ratios, 95% CI: 0.70, 0.51–0.95 unit of log‐transformed intake of total carotenoids [ug/d]; 0.82, 0.67–0.99 per μmol/L of plasma carotenoids) after adjustment for the same covariates. The inverse associations of intake and plasma status of total carotenoids with depressive symptomatology in this population suggest a protective effect of fruit and vegetable intake. Further population studies are needed to determine the causal direction. Supported by NIH P01 AG023394 and USDA ARS contract 58‐1950‐7‐707

Protective Effect of Total Carotenoid and Lycopene Intake on the Risk of Hip Fracture: A 17-Year Follow-Up From the Framingham Osteoporosis Study

In vitro and in vivo studies suggest that carotenoids may inhibit bone resorption, yet no previous study has examined individual carotenoid intake (other than beta-carotene) and the risk of fracture. We evaluated associations of total and individual carotenoid intake (alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, lutein + zeaxanthin) with incident hip fracture and nonvertebral osteoporotic fracture. Three hundred seventy men and 576 women (mean age, 75 +/- 5 yr) from the Framingham Osteoporosis Study completed a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) in 1988-1989 and were followed for hip fracture until 2005 and nonvertebral fracture until 2003. Tertiles of carotenoid intake were created from estimates obtained using the Willett FFQ adjusting for total energy (residual method). HRs were estimated using Cox-proportional hazards regression, adjusting for sex, age, body mass index, height, total energy, calcium and vitamin D intake, physical activity, alcohol, smoking, multivitamin use, and current estrogen use. A total of 100 hip fractures occurred over 17 yr of follow-up. Subjects in the highest tertile of total carotenoid intake had lower risk of hip fracture (p = 0.02). Subjects with higher lycopene intake had lower risk of hip fracture (p =0.01) and nonvertebral fracture (p = 0.02). A weak protective trend was observed for total beta-carotene for hip fracture alone, but associations did not reach statistical significance (p = 0.10). No significant associations were observed with alpha-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthin, or lutein + zeaxanthin. These results suggest a protective role of several carotenoids for bone health in older adults.

Carotenoid Intake and Colorectal Cancer Risk: The Multiethnic Cohort Study

BackgroundA protective effect of fruits and vegetables against colorectal cancer has been supported by many epidemiologic studies. This suggests that the carotenoids frequently found in these foods play a role in the prevention of this common cancer. To examine associations between the intake of individual and total carotenoids and the risk of colorectal cancer, we analyzed prospective data from the Multiethnic Cohort Study.MethodsThis analysis includes 85 898 men and 105 106 women who completed a quantitative food frequency questionnaire in 1993–1996. The participants were African Americans, Native Hawaiians, Japanese Americans, Latinos, and whites aged 45–75 years at cohort entry. After an average follow-up of 8.2 years, 1292 and 1086 incident cases of colorectal cancer were identified in men and women, respectively. Cox proportional hazard models were used to estimate relative risks of colorectal cancer.ResultsNo significant associations were found between intake of individual and total carotenoids and colorectal cancer risk either in men or women, except for β-cryptoxanthin, which showed a mild protective effect in men. When the associations were investigated separately for colon and rectal cancer, lycopene intake was related to an increased risk of rectal cancer in men. A decreased risk was seen for total β-carotene in male current smokers, but the test for interaction with smoking status was not significant. No association was observed in each ethnic-sex group.ConclusionOverall, our findings do not support a significant association between carotenoid intake and colorectal cancer, although some associations were seen in subgroup analyses.

Inverse association of carotenoid intakes with 4-y change in bone mineral density in elderly men and women: the Framingham Osteoporosis Study

BackgroundIn vitro and in vivo studies suggest that carotenoids may inhibit bone resorption and stimulate proliferation and differentiation of osteoblasts. Few studies have examined the association between carotenoid intake (other than β-carotene) and bone mineral density (BMD). ObjectiveWe evaluated associations between total and individual carotenoid intake (α-carotene, β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, and lutein+zeaxanthin) with BMD at the hip, spine, and radial shaft and the 4-y change in BMD. DesignBoth cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses were conducted in 334 men and 540 women (mean ± SD age: 75 ± 5 y) in the Framingham Osteoporosis Study. Energy-adjusted carotenoid intakes were estimated from the Willett food-frequency questionnaire. Mean BMD and mean 4-y BMD changes were estimated, for men and women separately, by quartile of carotenoid intake with adjustment for age, BMI, height, physical activity index, smoking (never compared with ever smokers), multivitamin use, season of BMD measurement (for cross-sectional analyses on BMD only), estrogen use (in women), and intakes of total energy, calcium, vitamin D, caffeine, and alcohol. ResultsFew cross-sectional associations were observed with carotenoid intake. Associations between lycopene intake and 4-y change in lumbar spine BMD were significant for women (P for trend = 0.03), as were intakes of total carotenoids, β-carotene, lycopene and lutein+zeaxanthin with 4-y change in trochanter BMD in men (P for trend = 0.0005, 0.02, 0.009, and 0.008, respectively). ConclusionsCarotenoids showed protective associations against 4-y loss in trochanter BMD in men and in lumbar spine in women. No significant associations were observed at other bone sites. Although not consistent across all BMD sites examined, these results support a protective role of carotenoids for BMD in older men and women.

Carotenoids and the risk of developing lung cancer: a systematic review

BackgroundCarotenoids are thought to have anti-cancer properties, but findings from population-based research have been inconsistent. ObjectiveWe aimed to conduct a systematic review of the associations between carotenoids and lung cancer. DesignWe searched electronic databases for articles published through September 2007. Six randomized clinical trials examining the efficacy of β-carotene supplements and 25 prospective observational studies assessing the associations between carotenoids and lung cancer were analyzed by using random-effects meta-analysis. ResultsThe pooled relative risk (RR) for the studies comparing β-carotene supplements with placebo was 1.10 (95% confidence limits: 0.89, 1.36; P = 0.39). Among the observational studies that adjusted for smoking, the pooled RRs comparing highest and lowest categories of total carotenoid intake and of total carotenoid serum concentrations were 0.79 (0.71, 0.87; P < 0.001) and 0.70 (0.44, 1.11; P = 0.14), respectively. For β-carotene, highest compared with lowest pooled RRs were 0.92 (0.83, 1.01; P = 0.09) for dietary intake and 0.84 (0.66, 1.07; P = 0.15) for serum concentrations. For other carotenoids, the RRs comparing highest and lowest categories of intake ranged from 0.80 for β-cryptoxanthin to 0.89 for α-carotene and lutein-zeaxanthin; for serum concentrations, the RRs ranged from 0.71 for lycopene to 0.95 for lutein-zeaxanthin. Conclusionsβ-Carotene supplementation is not associated with a decrease in the risk of developing lung cancer. Findings from prospective cohort studies suggest inverse associations between carotenoids and lung cancer; however, the decreases in risk are generally small and not statistically significant. These inverse associations may be the result of carotenoid measurements’ function as a marker of a healthier lifestyle (higher fruit and vegetable consumption) or of residual confounding by smoking.

Protective effect of total carotenoid and lycopene intake on risk of hip fracture: 15‐year follow‐up from the Framingham Osteoporosis Study

Objective: Carotenoids may inhibit resorption and stimulate formation of bone; yet no previous study has examined individual carotenoid intake (other than β‐carotene) and the risk of hip fracture. Therefore, we evaluated total and individual carotenoid (α‐carotene, β‐carotene, β‐cryptoxanthin, lycopene, lutein+zeaxanthin) intake and risk of hip fracture in the Framingham Osteoporosis Study.Methods: 366 men and 596 women, mean age 75 ± 5 y, completed a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) in 1988–89 and were followed for hip fracture until 2003. Tertiles of carotenoid intake were created from estimates obtained using the Willett FFQ adjusting for total energy (residual method). Hazard ratios (HR) were estimated, for men and women together, using Cox‐proportional hazards regression, adjusting for appropriate covariates.Results: Subjects in highest tertile of total carotenoid (HR T3: 0.50, HR T2: 0.77, P trend=0.009) and lycopene (HR T3: 0.54, HR T2: 0.83, P trend=0.008) had significantly lower risk of hip fracture than subjects in the lowest tertile (P&lt;0.05). No significant associations were observed for α‐carotene, β‐cryptoxanthin, total β‐carotene and lutein and zeaxanthin. However a significant trend, in the same direction was observed for total β‐carotene and lutein and zeaxanthin (P&lt;0.1).Conclusion: These results suggest a protective role of several carotenoids for bone health in older men and women.

Changes in carotenoid intake from fruit and vegetables in the Spanish population over the period 1964–2004

To assess changes in carotenoid intake based on the variations in the consumption of fresh fruit and vegetables in the Spanish population over the period 1964-2004. Consumption data of fresh fruit and vegetables from Family Budget Surveys carried out in 1964, 1980, 1990 and 2004. Consumption data (g per person per day) accounted for >90% of fruit and vegetable consumption at each time point. Quality controlled high-performance liquid chromatography analysis of the carotenoid composition of Spanish fruit and vegetable was used. Randomly selected, private households throughout Spain (20,800 households in 1964, 30,311 households in 1980, 21,155 households in 1990 and 6000 households in 2004). Twelve vegetables and 16 fruits representing 89-96% of the total consumption of fresh fruit and vegetables were used. Individual consumption of fruit and vegetables has changed over this period, altering the total and individual intake of carotenoids. Total carotenoid intake increased from 2.5 mg per person per day in 1964 to 4.1 mg per person per day in 1990, with a decrease to 3.3 mg per person per day in 2004. These increments are due to an increase in lycopene, alpha- and beta-carotene, while a decrease in lutein and zeaxanthin is observed during the last decade. A continuous and consistent decrease in the relative contribution of lutein in the diet is observed over the period studied. Although the consumption of fruit and vegetables is still consistent with a Mediterranean-type pattern, modifications in the consumption of individual fruits and vegetables have provoked changes in total and specific carotenoid intake with potential relevance in human health.

Vitamin A and β-carotene supply of women with gemini or short birth intervals

An adequate supply of vitamin A during pregnancy and breastfeeding plays an important role for development of foetus and neonate, especially in lung development and function. Aim of this pilot study was to analyze vitamin A and beta-carotene status and to investigate the contribution of nutrition to the vitamin A and beta-carotene supply in mother-infant pairs of gemini or births within short birth intervals. Twenty-nine volunteers aged between 21 and 36 years were evaluated for 48 h after delivery. During this time frame a food frequency protocol considering 3 months retrospective was obtained from all participants. In order to establish overall supply retinol and beta-carotene levels were determined in maternal plasma, cord blood and colostrum via HPLC analysis. Regardless of the high to moderate socio-economic background, 27.6% of participants showed plasma retinol levels below 1.4 micromol/l which can be taken as borderline deficiency. In addition, 46.4% showed retinol intake <66% of RDA and 50.0% did not consume liver at all although liver contributes as a main source for preformed retinol. Despite high total carotenoid intake of 6.9 +/- 3.6 mg/d, 20.7% of mothers showed plasma levels <0.5 micromol/l beta-carotene. Retinol and beta-carotene levels were highly significantly correlated between maternal plasma versus cord blood and colostrum. In addition, significantly lower levels were found in cord blood (31.2 +/- 13.0% (retinol), 4.1 +/- 1.4% (beta-carotene) compared with maternal plasma. Despite the fact that vitamin A and beta-carotene rich food is generally available, risk groups for low vitamin A supply exist in the western world.

Bioaccessibility of β-Carotene, Lutein, and Lycopene from Fruits and Vegetables

Epidemiological studies have consistently demonstrated that there is an association between carotenoid-rich food intakes with a low incidence in chronic diseases. Nevertheless, there is not an association between the intake of total dietary carotenoids and chronic health incidence in the European population, probably because of different carotenoid food sources and bioavailability. The objective of this study was to evaluate the small and large intestine bioaccessibilities of major dietary carotenoids from fruits and vegetables in a common diet. A bioaccessibility model that includes enzymatic digestion and in vitro colonic fermentation was employed. Lutein presented greater small intestine bioaccessibility (79%) than beta-carotene (27%) or lycopene (40%). With regard to large intestine bioaccessibility, similar amounts of lycopene and beta-carotene were released from the food matrix (57%), whereas small amounts of lutein (17%) were released. These results suggest that 91% of the beta-carotene, lutein, and lycopene contained in fruits and vegetables is available in the gut during the entire digestion process. Colonic fermentation is shown to be important for carotenoid availability in the gut.

Carotenoid accumulation strategies for becoming a colourful House Finch: analyses of plasma and liver pigments in wild moulting birds

Summary Male House Finches (Carpodacus mexicanus) colour their sexually selected plumage with carotenoid pigments, and there has been much interest in the factors that affect their ability to become bright red rather than drab yellow. There is good support for the notions that health, nutritional condition and total carotenoid intake influence colour expression, but there are also suggestions that acquiring particular types of carotenoids from the diet may be important for developing red plumage. We used high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to analyse the types and amounts of endogenous (in plasma and liver) and integumentary (in newly grown feathers) carotenoids in a wild, native population of moulting male and female House Finches from the south‐western United States to determine the carotenoid‐accumulation strategies for becoming optimally colourful. Four plant carotenoids – lutein, zeaxanthin, β‐cryptoxanthin and β‐carotene – were detected in plasma and liver. However, as was found previously, 11 carotenoids were observed in colourful plumage, with xanthophylls (e.g. lutein, dehydrolutein) predominant in yellow feathers and ketocarotenoids (e.g. adonirubin, 3‐hydroxy‐echinenone) in red feathers. This indicates endogenous modification of ingested carotenoids. Birds that accumulated more of one type of carotenoid in plasma and liver did not necessarily accumulate more of all other types, suggesting that individuals are not employing a simple ‘more is better’ strategy for coloration. Instead, when forward stepwise regression was used to examine the ability of individual types of carotenoids in plasma and liver to explain variation in red plumage pigments and plumage redness, we found that the lone variable remaining in all models was β‐cryptoxanthin concentration. This supports the idea that, unlike some other songbirds (e.g. yellow Carduelis finches), there is a specialized biochemical strategy that male House Finches follow to become red and most sexually attractive – to accumulate as much β‐cryptoxanthin in the body as possible. β‐Cryptoxanthin is a less common dietary carotenoid than the typical xanthophylls and carotenes in grains and fruits and may be limited enough in the diet that, to become colourful, House Finches might adopt selective foraging strategies for the most β‐cryptoxanthin‐rich foods.