Intake Air Temperature Research Articles

The Green Energy Effect on an HCCI Engine from Used Cooking Oil-based Biodiesel from Malaysia

Emissions from internal combustion engines (ICEs) significantly impact the environment, leading continents worldwide to work towards reducing them. The industry is increasingly leaning towards electric powertrains. However, power plants still utilize ICEs as generators, contributing to global pollution. Consequently, ICE emissions are garnering international attention. Alternatives like the Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) engine and biodiesel fuels are being explored. HCCI engines have not been extensively tested with Used Cooking Oil (UCO) biodiesel. This study investigates the performance and emissions of HCCI engines using UCO-based biodiesel. This study tested an air-cooled, single-cylinder, 4-stroke diesel engine operating at 3600 rpm with a displacement of 0.219 liters. The HCCI mode was activated during preheating and run at 2700 rpm under varying biodiesel blend percentages and intake temperatures. In HCCI mode, brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) increased, peaking at a 90°C intake temperature. Diesel fuel in-cylinder pressure reached a maximum of 81 bars at 90°C, decreasing to 79 bars at 70°C. The HCCI mode resulted in lower NOx, CO, and UHC emissions. Higher biodiesel blend ratios further reduced CO emissions. Raising the intake air temperature to 90°C lowered NOx emissions by 96.66%, from 150 ppm to 5 ppm. Using green energy sources as fuel in HCCI engines significantly reduced emissions in this study, suggesting their potential as a future fuel for advanced engines.

Exploring the Combustion Performance of a Non-Road Air-Cooled Two-Cylinder Turbocharged Diesel Engine

In order to explore the combustion performance of a non-road air-cooled two-cylinder turbocharged diesel engine, an experiment on the effects of engine compression ratio, combustion chamber shape and injection timing were systematically conducted in this study. Moreover, the effects of intake air conditions on combustion performance were numerically investigated using the one-dimensional simulation platform. The findings of this study could help provide new insights for promoting the sustainable development of diesel engines used in generator sets. The results show that the increase in intake air temperature can delay the combustion center of gravity and improve the combustion performance and the sustainability of diesel engines. The decrease in intake air pressure leads to a reduction in oxygen amount during the combustion process, thus causing the deterioration of cylinder pressure and combustion performance. By modifying the combustion chamber, the ignition delay and combustion duration are each extended by 1.6 degrees and 4.2 degrees under 100% engine load. The ignition delay and combustion duration are not obviously affected by modifying the combustion chamber shape under 25% and 50% loads. By increasing the compression ratio from 19.5 to 20.5, the ignition delay and combustion duration are shortened, which could enhance the cylinder pressure and heat release rate. However, reducing the compression ratio from 19.5 to 18.5 could significantly decrease the heat release rate. Under middle and low loads, combustion duration is less affected by injection timing. Under 100% load, the peak cylinder pressure increases to 11.4 MPa, and the ignition delay is shortened by advancing injection timing from −17 °CA to −20 °CA.

Comparative Study of ANN and SVM Model Network Performance for Predicting Brake Power in SI Engines Using E15 Fuel

Currently, artificial neural networks (ANNs) and support vector machines (SVMs) are the most common applications of machine learning approaches. In this study, a comparative study of ANN and SVM is presented to evaluate the performance of each model in predicting the brake power (BP) of GX35-OHC 4-stroke, air-cooled, single cylinder gasoline engine with E15 (15% ethanol + 85% gasoline) fuel. Two models are compared based on experimental dataset that has single output (BP) and five inputs, engine speed (S), engine torque (T), intake air temperature (Tair), intake air flow (Qair), and fuel consumption (ṁ). The samples were split into three sets: Training set (70%), Validation set (15%), and the Test set (15%) based on 60 samples. The results are compared through different graphs such as target vs actual values, regression plots, histograms of prediction errors, residual plots, learning curves, and error distributions. The results showed that SVM model is indicated to have lower RMSE (0.0044) and higher EVS (0.9953), while ANN is shown to have lower value of MAPE (1.51%). These results have significant implications for the use of ANN and SVM models in real-world applications that need gradual comprehensibility and model generalization. In addition, work done with the models outlined above should try and test them in other engines and operating conditions to demonstrate the model’s and performance.

Identification of User Requirements and their Influencing Factors Based on Online Reviews and Operational Data

It is crucial for enterprises to clearly identify user needs during the process of formulating product design improvement plans. Therefore, it is essential to comprehensively and accurately identify user needs, explore the reasons behind the emergence of these needs, and incorporate user opinions into the process of product design improvement. A method is proposed to comprehensively and accurately capture user requirements and address the challenge of identifying the underlying causes of user requirements. This method utilizes online comments and operational data to identify user requirements and their influencing factors. First, text sentiment analysis techniques are employed to quantify the importance and performance values of product feature topics. Second, we construct a quadrant model to identify product features requiring improvement, and the original negative comments related to these features are traced. However, the quadrant model alone is insufficient to reflect specific product issues that users are concerned about. Therefore, a functional structure model based on product issues is designed to filter and identify factors that influence user requirements using operational data. Finally, a Bayesian network inference approach is utilized to identify the key influencing factors on user requirements, enabling analysis of the causes behind user requirements and the proposal of product design improvement strategies. The feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed method are validated through experiments conducted on heavy-duty truck data. By analyzing the original negative comments related to the power characteristics, specific user demands regarding the insufficient power of the product were identified, such as “obviously insufficient power when climbing slopes” and other issues. Based on the vehicle power system functional structure model, combined with expert knowledge and operational data, factors related to the state of parts and user behavior that may affect “insufficient vehicle power” were identified. Based on the analysis results, suggestions were made to improve the engine intake air temperature control strategy and to enhance vehicle performance by promoting correct user behavior through informational campaigns.

Prediction and decision of free-piston linear generator on starting process for multi-fuel adaptability

Free-piston linear generators, due to their variable compression ratio, are considered to possess excellent multi-fuel adaptability. Further, fuel-flexible is a weighty research topic for addressing energy source limitations, meeting powertrain generalization requirements, and achieving energy savings and emission reductions. The initial concern to solve is the rapid starting of various fuels within the same free-piston linear generator. This study aims to introduce a mechanical resonance starting performance prediction model based on an artificial neural network and provides a control decision method based on single-objective optimization with soft constraints to achieve flexible starting of a variety of fuels. This paper also assessed the starting performance using the free-piston linear generator prototype and conducted a comprehensive parameterized analysis to investigate the influence of parameters and control variables on starting performance. Using the starting decision method proposed, the control variable values for ethanol starting were derived on the prototype, resulting in driving current at 3.5A, intake air mass flow at 95 standard liters per minute, and intake air temperature at 335 K. This decision value effectively met the predefined requirements, successfully igniting and starting the prototype with ethanol. This outcome serves as a robust validation of the fuel-flexible capabilities within free-piston linear generator systems.

Methods and metrics to assess the accuracy of heat flux data from a spark ignition IC engine

The measurement of in-cylinder heat transfer can be a valuable diagnostic tool for quantifying and improving IC engine performance. Increased heat transfer out of the combustion chamber negatively impacts overall efficiency, while heat transfer from the metal to the charge can increase knock propensity. The heat flux at various locations in an engine cylinder can be measured using heat flux probes consisting of two thermocouples – a surface thermocouple exposed to the changing in-cylinder temperatures, and a far field thermocouple which has a constant temperature at steady state operating conditions. The buildup of carbon deposits on the surface thermocouple can affect the heat flux measurements and lead to errors in the data. Heat flux measurements were performed on a proprietary single-cylinder research engine with instrumented heat flux probes in the cylinder head and cylinder liner. The engine was run rich with a high PMI fuel to expedite the buildup of carbon deposits. A metric was developed based on the output of the surface thermocouple to determine the cleanliness of the heat flux probes non-intrusively. Heat flux calculations were done using the FFT method and validated using the Cook-Felderman method. An uncertainty analysis was conducted on the heat flux data to verify that the negative heat flux observed was not due to errors in the distance between the two thermocouples or the measurement of temperature. Finally, to bolster confidence in the results, heat flux measurements were made for motoring conditions with varying coolant and intake air temperatures to gauge whether the trends in the output were in the expected direction.

Research on preparation of curcumin powder by spray drying method with the support of gum Arabic and maltodextrin and improvement in its solubility

The suspension of curcumin being created tends to clump together into larger particles and settle down. One way to improve this shortcoming is to spray-dry the suspension system. The aim of this study is to optimize the powder forming process from the spray drying method. The suspension was converted to a powder with maltodextrin as a carrier. Optimization results, realized via a response surface methodology, showed that a maximal curcumin content of 4.667% could be attained under the following conditions: intake air temperature 150 °C, drying air flow of 290 m3/h and feed flow rate of 0.7 L/h. Under these conditions, the particles of obtained powder has the median size of 1.900 μm by LDS method and FESEM also showed that curcumin particles had a nearly spherical shape with a size range of 1 - 3 μm.

Experiment for the performance of a thin membrane inclined automatic wicking dew-point evaporative cooling device based on simulation results

The traditional indirect evaporative coolers necessitate a continuous operation of water pumps to ensure the wetting of wet channel walls. However, excessive water spraying can lead to a thickened water film, negatively impacting heat transfer efficiency and generating an additional pressure drop. Identifying suitable water supply strategies and exploring materials for the wet channel that possess good moisture retention and evaporation characteristics has drawn research attention over the years.In this study, an automatic wicking dew-point evaporative cooling device, whose structure was determined by corresponding optimal performance simulation research, was designed and manufactured. The thin film exhibits a certain inclination angle between the dry and wet channels to form a triangular channel to enhance support and increase heat transfer area. Utilizing the automatic water absorption characteristics of the membrane for water supply instead of spraying, makes the water more uniform and heat exchange more efficient. A comprehensive study was conducted on the effects of different operating parameters (working-to-intake air ratio, intake air velocity, water temperature, intake air temperature, and intake air humidity) on the performance of the device. The results indicate that the cooler performs best in high-temperature, low-humidity environments. When the inlet temperature, humidity, and velocity are within the range of 25–45 °C, 20–80 %, and 0.5–2.5 m/s, respectively, with a water temperature of 22 °C and an air-to-water flow rate ratio of 0.5, the maximum temperature drop can reach 14.8 °C, and the cooling capacity per unit area ranges from 13 to 150 W/m2. The wet-bulb efficiency and dew-point efficiency increased from 52.4 % and 33.6 % to 110.6 % and 88.5 %, respectively. When the air velocity increases from 0.5 m/s to 2.5 m/s, the product air temperature increases by 3.1 °C, and the wet-bulb efficiency and dew-point efficiency decrease by 25.1 % and 17.5 %, respectively. However, the variation trends of unit area cooling capacity and energy efficiency ratio (EER) are opposite. The optimal operating conditions are proposed with an air volume ratio of 0.5 and a water temperature range of 22–26 °C. Finally, the temperatures of the product air and water were observed during long-term operation testing to evaluate the stability of the device.

Study of the effect of ignition crank angle and mixture composition on the performance of a spark-ignition engine fueled with ethanol

The publication presents the results of the measurements of the operating parameters of a spark-ignition engine fueled with 95-octane unleaded gasoline (ES95) and ethyl alcohol, approx. 92%. The measurements were carried out at a constant load: an engine speed of 1,500 rpm and a constant pressure in the intake system - MAP=0.45 bar. For each type of fuel, the measurements were carried out in two series for two variables. The ignition crank anglewas varied in the range of 0˚÷40˚ and the mixture composition λ in the range of 0.85÷1.25. The recorded engine performance parameters included torque, intake manifold pressure, intake air temperature, exhaust gas temperature and temporal fuel consumption; and exhaust gas composition was examined in terms of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides. The study showed that an ethanol-fueled engine has lower average efficiency compared to a gasoline one. The highest efficiency for ethanol was obtained for rich mixtures in the range λ=0.85÷1.0 and at high ignition advance angles. The use of alcohol fuel showed a very favorable effect on the composition of exhaust gas and a significantly lower content of harmful exhaust components was demonstrated. For the same operating points, carbon monoxide content was reduced by an average of 15%, and hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides by an average of 80%.

Data mining techniques for estimating instantaneous NOX emissions from Euro 6 diesel passenger cars

Nitrogen oxides (NOX) emissions that are caused by road traffic diesel engines affects public health. The existing instantaneous emissions models are often imprecise due to the lack of knowledge of highly non-linear processes behind real-world emissions and they do not include meteorological and driving volatility variables. This paper applied data mining techniques based on the Cross Industry Standard Process for Data Mining (CRISP-DM) method to a dataset of four diesel Euro 6 passenger cars tested in real-world driving conditions to: a) model stabilised hot NOX emissions based on kinematic (speed), internal engine (engine coolant temperature, engine load, engine speed, intake air temperature, manifold absolute pressure and mass air flow), meteorological (humidity) and driving volatility (acceleration and vehicular jerk); b) compare the performance of different machine learning (ML) techniques in predicting NOX emission rates, namely: Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), Random Forest (RF), and Gradient-Boosted Trees (GBT). The model that utilizes a set of detailed variables, particularly engine coolant temperature, engine load, engine speed, intake air temperature, humidity, acceleration and vehicular jerk, and using ANN technique was better able to deal with variability in emission data than models based on a single set of these variables. It was also found that models produced high Root Mean Square Error due to their inability in predicting high peaks in measured emission data. The presented models rely on fast inference times and can therefore be deployed for engine control units to inform drivers about their NOX emissions during driving.

Effect of Air Intake Temperatures on the Air-Water Harvester Performance

During the dry season, some parts of Indonesia experience drought and a clean water crisis, resulting in scarcity and difficulty in drinking water. One of the solutions to solve this problem is to use an air-water harvester machine that produces water from the air. Since the intake air temperature affected the water yield, the article examined the relationship between the engine intake air temperature and the machine’s performance. The study aimed to determine the performance of the air-water harvester machine at various air intake temperatures. The research was carried out experimentally for a refrigerant working fluid R134a. The rotary-type 1/4 PK compressor was used to realize the research. The air temperatures entering the condensing unit varied between 30, 35, and 40 °C. The results showed that the highest average water mass obtained was 0.34 kg at a temperature variation of 30 °C. The highest total heat absorbed by the condensing unit from the air of 184 W occurred at a temperature variation of 40 °C. Overall, an increase in the air intake temperatures allowed for a decrease in the performance of the air-water harvester machine by more than 5 %.

Parametric Analysis of a Radiant Gas Heating System for Controlled-Environment Agriculture with Preheated Ventilation

This article explores the fundamental principles of the software method for calculating the gas-fired heating system of a cultivation structure, where the main source of heat is provided by ceiling-mounted gas infrared radiators. To maintain the required thermal regime within the premises, a gas air heater is utilized, designed to preheat the outdoor air to the necessary temperature before supplying it to the heated space.The calculation method is based on solving a system of interconnected equations of thermal and material balances for the cultivation structure, its enclosure, and the soil surface. Possible utilization of thermal energy from high-potential combustion products of gaseous fuel is taken into account.Using the example of the “Farmer 7.5” industrial greenhouse (Russian Federation), designed for year-round cultivation of plants in closed soil (in this case, cucumbers were the subject of study until the fruitbearing stage in the winter-spring cycle), the impacts of various factors are investigated: outside air temperature, thermal resistance of the enclosing structure on the heating system’s thermal power (in combination with the gas air heater), and variable parameters of the microclimate. The latter includes the enclosure temperature of the industrial greenhouse and the intake air temperature for general exchange ventilation needs. Specific conclusions and prospects for further scientific research are drawn based on the obtained results.

Injection strategy of methanol for high loads and low NOx emissions in a neat methanol LTC engine

Methanol is a low carbon and clean burning renewable fuel. Though low temperature combustion (LTC) of neat methanol results in almost no smoke with ultra-low NOx, the extremely low cetane number poses challenges. This experimental study demonstrates LTC of neat methanol at full load by combining direct and port injection of this fuel with controlled intake air temperature (IAT). The effects of important variables including IAT and port (premixed) and direct-injected methanol shares on combustion, performance, regulated and unregulated emissions were investigated. The timing of the direct-injected methanol had to be retarded with an increase in the premixed methanol share and IAT in order to limit the pressure rise rate without affecting the ITE. At high IATs, the premixed methanol burned first, followed by the directly injected methanol, at low IATs, these phases merged, resulting in a high rate of heat release. Employing the lowest possible IAT and the highest possible premixed methanol share led to high ITE. Increase in the MDIP to 450 bar was advantageous due to better fuel evaporation and enhanced combustion. Negligible smoke, very low NOx of 2.7 g/kWh, high ITE of 45% and unburned HC and methanol emissions lesser than 3 g/kWh could be achieved.

Effects of intake air temperature on energy, exergy and sustainability analyses in an RCCI engine fueled with iso-propanol and n-heptane

In this study, performance and emission tests were carried out in a diesel engine operating with RCCI combustion mode by varying the amount of fuel taken into the cylinder and the air temperature in one cycle. Thermodynamic performance was determined by making energy, exergy and sustainability analyzes using the data obtained in the tests. The effects of change in intake air temperature on thermal efficiency, exergy efficiency, exhaust exergy, exergy destruction, and sustainability index were calculated. As the temperature of the air taken into the cylinder increases, the lost exergy decreases and the exergy efficiency increases. At 2500 rpm engine speed, when the amount of fuel taken into the cylinder is 20 mg/cycle, if the inlet temperature is 30°C, 50°C and 70°C, the exergy destruction is 9.873 kW, 9.760 kW and 9.394 kW, respectively. The highest thermal and exergy efficiencies were calculated as 31.58 % and 28.7 %, respectively, at an engine speed of 2000 rpm, when the fuel taken into the cylinder per cycle was 20 mg and the intake air temperature was 70°C. Moreover, the sustainability index was found to be 1.4 under the same conditions. The thermodynamic results show that RCCI mode can be used as alternative combustion mode.

Effects of intake conditions on a dual-fuel spark-assisted compression ignition engine with polyoxymethylene dimethyl ether and methanol as fuels

Dual-fuel spark-assisted compression ignition (DF-SACI) is an advanced engine combustion mode. The use of polyoxymethylene dimethyl ether (PODE) and methanol as fuel can reduce the carbon emissions of the DF-SACI engine. To improve the combustion continuity and minimize the knocking and emissions of DF-SACI engines, the effects of intake heating and boosting were investigated. The results showed that the combination of intake heating and delayed spark ignition promoted fuel diffusion and prevented multi-peak heat release. Intake boosting promoted the transformation of compression ignition into flame propagation ignition. Intake heating and boosting allowed engine combustion optimization. The brake thermal efficiency was 41.4 % and 44 % when the brake mean effective pressure was 0.6 and 0.8 MPa, respectively, and the maximum pressure rise rate, coefficient of cyclic variation in the indicated mean effective pressure, and emissions were within reasonable ranges. A high intake air temperature combined with delayed spark ignition reduced the enrichment of PODE, thereby reducing the self-ignition probability of the fuel mixture, which can reduce knocking. When intake boosting was applied, the adoption of an excess air coefficient (λ) of 1.8 eliminated knocking under most conditions. Intake heating improved fuel reactivity and increased the ratio of compression ignition, to allow for the simultaneous reduction of hydrocarbon (HC) and NOx emissions. The effects of intake boosting on NOx and HC emissions were related to the energy ratio of PODE. As the energy ratio of PODE is between 47 % and 68 %, the appropriate increase in λ reduced both HC and NOx emissions. The results are conducive to the development of low-carbon engines and can provide a new direction for engine research.

Experimental assessment of lamella heat exchanger as cold intake air system for spark ignition engine by utilizing vehicle air conditioning system

Global warming and air pollution have become major concerns for humanity, especially in the last few decades. The transport sector contributes significantly to a large proportion of urban air pollution due to the dramatic increase in vehicle production and transportation growth, resulting in harmful emissions. Cooling the intake air temperature is one of the alternative strategies to reduce exhaust emissions and improve combustion conditions. The present study adopted the Lamella heat exchanger (LHE) as an intake air cooling device for a 1.5 L naturally aspirated engine. The design size of LHE is based on the maximum space available in the test vehicle for its installation. A refrigerant derived from the vehicle air conditioning (VAC) system acts as a coolant medium for LHE. For experimental testing, two types of vehicle statuses are considered, i.e., moving and static, to evaluate the performance of the cooling device in both positions. Engine power, torque, exhaust emissions, and fuel consumption are designated as evaluating parameters. The results depict that lowering the temperature of the intake air by 30–40°C through LHE reduces the increased quantity of exhaust emissions due to the VAC system by 43.6%, 39.5%, 47.3%, and 64.5% for CO, CO2, HC, and NOx respectively. Further, the amount of lost engine power and torque due to the VAC system is partially recovered by 17% and 24%, respectively, by introducing cold air into the engine. Convincingly, LHE has a significant potential to improve engine performance.

Single- and double-inlet PV curtain wall systems using novel heat recovery technique for PV cooling, fresh and supply air handling: Design and performance assessment

Building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) technology has emerged as a promising solution for serving electricity and heat demands in buildings. However, PV overheating causes reduced production, increased space cooling load, and stagnation damage. To address overheating and save energy in air conditioning, this study proposed novel single- and dual-inlet ventilation PV curtain wall systems (SVPV and DVPV). In summer, the building exhaust is introduced into the channel to strengthen PV cooling, while incoming fresh air is used to preheat dew-point air. In winter, warm exhaust within the channel decreases heat loss through the facade and then raises the fresh air intake temperature. Mathematical models were developed for the systems, and a comprehensive performance evaluation criterion (PEC) was defined. Economic analysis was conducted using simple payback (SP) and net present value (NPV) models. Additionally, the impact of ambient temperature and solar radiation on system performance was investigated. The case study demonstrates that SVPV and DVPV reduced annual energy consumption by 957.23 kWh (28.07%) and 910.97 kWh (26.72%), respectively, compared to a conventional non-ventilated system. SVPV slightly outperformed DVPV, with an average PEC of 0.556 and 0.544, respectively. This study provides valuable insights for operational strategies and future large-scale promotion of BIPV applications.

Effect of gas turbine intake air temperature regulating heat exchanger on combined cycle performance based on three-dimensional deformed tube

Effect of gas turbine intake air temperature regulating heat exchanger on combined cycle performance based on three-dimensional deformed tube

Investigation of intake air temperature effect on co-combustion characteristics of NH3/gasoline in naturally aspirated high compression ratio engine with sub-chamber

Recently, ammonia (NH3), which has a higher energy density than hydrogen, has gained attention for zero-carbon emission goals in the transportation sector. However, in a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE), NH3 combustion mechanism is still under investigation. In this paper, to further expand the knowledge on the adoption of NH3 in ICEs, authors conducted NH3/gasoline co-combustion experiments in a modified, 17.7:1 compression ratio, naturally aspirated spark-assisted CI engine with sub-chamber. The sub-chamber was chosen in order to enhance the combustion speed of NH3. In addition, the sub-chamber was equipped with glow and spark plugs to overcome the high auto-ignition temperature of NH3. Engine performance and NOX emissions were studied under three different intake air temperatures. During the experiments, NH3 content was increased gradually where the engine was run under lean conditions. Although higher NH3 content was achieved compared to our previous work, increasing the intake air temperature resulted in decreased charging efficiency. In addition, corrosion was found on the piston ring after 120 h of operation, negatively affecting the engine performance. Furthermore, NH3/gasoline co-combustion duration was shortened drastically with the influence of the sub-chamber, where the longest combustion duration under the present conditions was found to be 17°CA.

An Experimental Study of Operating Range, Combustion and Emission Characteristics in an RCCI Engine Fueled with Iso-Propanol/n-Heptane

Recently, studies have been carried out using environmentally sustainable technologies with more efficient energy conversion to fulfill emission requirements. One of these technologies, reactivity controlled compression ignition (RCCI), is a low-temperature combustion mode and has a dual fuel strategy. The controllability of combustion, high thermal efficiency and low nitrogen oxide (NOx) and soot emissions are some of the most prominent advantages of this combustion mode. In this study, the effects of the premixed ratio (PR) and intake air temperature (IAT) on the operating range, combustion characteristics and emissions were investigated experimentally. In the experiments, iso-propanol and n-heptane were used as fuels. The experiments were carried out for two different case studies. In the first case, the experiments were performed at a 50 °C intake air temperature and three different premix ratios (PR25, PR50, PR75). The minimum brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) was 268 g/kWh and the widest operating range was obtained with PR25. In addition, the lowest emission values in NOx, hydrocarbon (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emission formation were recorded with the use of PR25 fuel. In the other case, experiments were conducted at three different intake air temperatures (30 °C, 50 °C, 70 °C) with PR50. The minimum BSFC was measured as 268 g/kWh and the widest operating range was observed at a 70 °C intake air temperature. At the same time, the lowest NOx emission values were obtained at a 30 °C intake air temperature. The maximum HC emission was determined as 586 ppm at a 30 °C intake air temperature. In addition, the minimum CO emission was measured as 0.142% by volume at a 70 °C intake air temperature.