Instrumental Hardness Research Articles

Effect of emulsifier blend on quality attributes and storage of high protein buffalo milk ice cream

High protein (10%) ice cream was developed at our lab using whey protein isolate. In comparison to conventional ice cream, it lacked severely in sensory attributes viz. flavour, meltdown and body and texture. Attempts were made to improve the quality attributes of high protein ice cream by increasing polysorbate 80 (PS80) level in the emulsifier blend (0.15%) from 0 to 100%. Increasing PS80 level resulted in significant (p < 0.05) decrease in consistency coefficient (0.85 ± 0.09 Pa sn at 0% PS80 to 0.52 ± 0.09 Pa sn at 100% PS80) and increase in loss modulus and storage modulus values. Particle size distribution revealed an increase in the mean size of fat globule clumps with increasing PS80 level (d90 4.03 μm at 0% PS80 to d90 6.72 μm at 100% PS80). Overrun and melting rate were decreased with increasing PS80. Instrumental hardness decreased when PS80 increased from 20 to 40%, however >40% PS80 led to higher hardness values. Sensory evaluation revealed that sample containing 40% PS80 in the emulsifier blend (0.06% w/w in ice cream mix) was most preferred by panelists. During storage period, high protein ice cream had lesser extent of changes in quality attributes and higher sensory acceptability than control.

Impact of Individual Differences in Eating Rate on Oral Processing, Bolus Properties and Post-Meal Glucose Responses

PurposeModifying food texture has been shown to influence oral processing behaviour. We explored the impact of food texture on oral processing, bolus formation and post-prandial glucose responses (PPG) among fast and slow eaters. MethodsMale participants (N=39) were split into fast or slow eaters based on natural differences in eating rate when consuming two carbohydrate-equivalent test-meals differing in texture (white rice and rice cake). PPG and satiety responses were compared for fast and slow eaters over 120-min for each test-meal. Each groups test-meal PPG was compared for bolus and saliva properties at the point of swallow. ResultsWhite rice displayed lower instrumental hardness, chewiness and Young's modulus and was perceived less chewy, springy and sticky than rice cake. Slow eaters (n=24, white rice: 13.3 g/min; rice cake: 15.1 g/min) required an average 42% more chews per bite (p < 0.001), had 60% longer oral exposure time (OET), and consumed both test-meals (p < 0.001) at half the eating rate of fast eaters (n=15). Slow eaters had higher PPG following the rice cake meal at 15 (p = 0.046) and 45 min (p = 0.034) than fast eaters. A longer OET was a positive predictor of early PPG at 30-min after the white rice meal (β = 0.178, p = 0.041) and saliva uptake was a significant predictor (β = 0.458, p = 0.045) of PPG for slow eaters when consuming rice cake. Increasing food hardness and stiffness (Young's modulus) had a greater impact on eating rate for slow eaters than fast eaters. ConclusionsEating rate, oral exposure time and bolus saliva uptake were the predictors of an individual's post-prandial glycaemic response amongst slow eaters. Increasing the number of chews per bite with a longer oral exposure time increased saliva uptake in the bolus at the moment of swallowing and enhanced temporal changes in PPG, leading to greater glycaemic peaks in rice cake meal. Differences in eating rate between slow and fast eaters when consuming rice cake meal influenced temporal changes in PPG but not total PPG, and bolus properties did not differ between eating rate groups.

Intrinsic mechanical properties of food in relation to texture parameters

The texture profile analysis test is an imitative test to determine texture properties of food, which quantify the consumer’s perception of eating food. The instrumental texture parameters obtained from this test depend on the specimen size and the nonstandardized test conditions. To overcome this problem, texture properties are here related to intrinsic mechanical properties, which are independent of the test conditions. Two types of materials are used to investigate the effect of viscoelasticity, plasticity and damage on the texture parameters for varying test conditions. Analytical relations between mechanical properties, test conditions, and the instrumental hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, and adhesiveness are determined. The hardness is obtained from the stiffness of the material, which is potentially rate-dependent, and the yield stress of a material in case of plasticity. The springiness is determined by the recoverable or irrecoverable strain in the material, which results from the mechanical properties in combination with the test conditions. Cohesiveness and springiness are found to be strongly related, unless structural damage is present in the material. Adhesiveness is only an indirect measure of the adhesion between the material and compression plate and depends on the test conditions and stiffness of the material. Finite element simulations reveal a decrease of hardness in case of a nonflat top surface, indicating the importance of geometrical effects.

Enrichment of NaCl-reduced burger with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids: Effects on physicochemical, technological, nutritional, and sensory characteristics

This study aimed to determine the effect of NaCl reduction and addition of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) on the quality traits of burgers. Fish oil was either directly incorporated or added as encapsulated by freeze-dried microparticles (complex coacervates) composed of soy protein isolate and inulin. Despite the differences in some parameters associated with NaCl reduction (e.g., instrumental hardness), the quality of the burgers was mainly affected by the microparticles. Thus, a decrease in pH and increase in hardness and chewiness were observed, and a higher exposure of fish oil to oxidation was observed thus increasing volatile oxidation compounds and negatively impacting on the sensory profile and overall liking of the burgers. However, the encapsulation of the fish oil helped to retain EPA and DHA after cooking. The results of the NaCl-reduced burger with unencapsulated fish oil suggest the possibility of incorporating PUFAs, but only containing EPA after cooking.

Effect of using chia seed powder on physicochemical, rheological, thermal, and texture properties of ice cream

In this study, a mixture of salep and chia seed powder (CSP) at different ratios was used as a stabilizer in the production of ice cream. The effect of the mixtures was determined on the physical, chemical, color, rheological, thermal properties, instrumental hardness, and consumer acceptance properties of the ice cream samples. The viscosity, consistency coefficient, lightness (L*), whiteness index, (midpoint and offset), heat ice freezing, and melting values increased in the sample containing 0.6% salep and 0.2% CSP compared to the control sample and then decreased in accordance with the increment of CSP. The highest hardness value was determined in the sample containing CSP (0.8%). The control sample and sample containing 0.6% salep/0.2% CSP had the highest consumer acceptance scores. It was determined that 0.2% CSP could be used with salep to decrease the consumption of orchid species and to improve various quality properties of ice creams. Practical applications Salep (Orchidaceae family) is generally used as a stabilizer in ice cream, and species of salep is been extinction day to day. This study indicated that the usage of the mixture of salep and chia seed powder can improve the quality properties of ice creams. Consequently, the mixture of salep (75%) and chia seed powder (25%) could be used as a stabilizer to reduce using salep and to protect species of salep to improve the quality properties of ice cream.

Modelling and optimization of process parameters for production of desiccated Chhana-murki (Indian cottage cheese-based dessert).

In the present study, process parameters were optimized for the production of desiccated chhana-murki (Indian cottage cheese-based dessert). Response Surface Methodology (RSM)was employed to explore the mutual effects of coagulation temperature (CT) of milk (70-90°C), % fat level in milk (3.5%-5.5%), and sugar-to-paneer cube (SP) ratio (0.6-0.9) on instrumental hardness (N), water activity (aw), yield (%), sensory sweetness and overall acceptability (on 100-point intensity scale) of chhana-murki. The resulted responses were evaluated by analysis of variance (ANOVA), and the second-order polynomial response surface equations were fitted using multiple regression analysis. Determination coefficients (R 2) were equal to 80% or higher for individual responses stated that the developed models were well fitted to the experimental results. The optimized product was prepared using CT 79.22°C, milk fat 4.8%, and SP ratio 0.7. Confirmatory experiment values for instrument hardness, water activity (aw), yield (%), sensory sweetness and overall acceptability were 105.05N, 0.85, 115.2%, 61.2 and 78.8, respectively.

Impact of food texture modifications on oral processing behaviour, bolus properties and postprandial glucose responses

Several studies have demonstrated food texture manipulation on oral processing behaviour (OPB). We explored the effect of texture-differences of equivalent carbohydrate load on OPB, bolus properties and postprandial glycaemic responses (PPG). In a randomised cross-over, within-subjects, non-blinded design, healthy male participants (N = 39) consumed fixed portions of white rice (WR) and rice cake (RC) while being video recorded to measure microstructural eating behaviours. PPG was compared between test foods over a period of 120-min, and the bolus properties and saliva uptake at swallow were measured for both test foods. RC displayed higher instrumental hardness, chewiness and Young's modulus than WR (p = 0.01), and participants perceived RC as more springy and sticky than WR (p < 0.001). The RC meal was chewed more per bite (p < 0.001) and consumed at a faster eating rate (p = 0.033) than WR. WR bolus particles were smaller at swallow (p < 0.001) with a larger total surface area (p < 0.001), compared to RC. The glucose response for RC was significantly higher during the first 30-min postprandial period (p = 0.010), and lower in the later (30–120 min) postprandial period (p = 0.031) compared to WR. Total blood glucose iAUC did not differ significantly between WR and RC meals despite their large differences in texture, OPB and bolus properties. Oro-sensory exposure time was a significant predictor of glucose iAUC30min for both test meals (RC, p = 0.003; WR, p = 0.029). Saliva uptake in the bolus was significantly positively associated with blood glucose during the first 30-min postprandial period for the RC meal (p = 0.008), but not for WR. We conclude that food texture modifications can influence OPB and bolus properties which are key contributors to the dynamic evolution of the glycaemic response. Total blood glucose responses were the same for both test foods, though differences in oral processing and bolus properties influenced temporal changes in PPG.

Eleven-year Correlation of Physical Fruit Texture Traits between Computerized Penetrometers and Sensory Assessment in an Apple Breeding Program

Fruit texture is a major target of apple (Malus domestica) breeding programs due to its influence on consumer preference. This multitrait feature is typically rated using sensory assessment, which is subjective and prone to biases. Instrumental measurements have predominantly targeted firmness of the outer region of fruit cortex using industry standard Magness–Taylor-type penetrometers, while other metrics remain largely unused. Additionally, there have been limited reports on correlating sensory attributes with instrumental metrics on many diverse apple selections. This report is the first to correlate multiyear historical fruit texture information of instrumental metrics and sensory assessment in an apple breeding program. Through 11 years of routine fruit quality evaluation at the Washington State University apple breeding program, physical textural data of 84,552 fruit acquired from computerized penetrometers were correlated with sensory assessment. Correlations among various instrumental metrics are high (0.63 ≤ r ≤ 1.00; P &lt; 0.0001). In correlating instrumental outputs with sensory data, there is a significant correlation (r = 0.43; P &lt; 0.0001) between the instrumental crispness value and sensory crispness. Additionally, instrumental hardness traits are significantly correlated (0.61 ≤ r ≤ 0.69; P &lt; 0.0001) with sensory hardness. Outputs from two versions of computerized penetrometers were tested and shown to have no statistical differences. Overall, this report demonstrates potential use of instrumental metrics as firmness and crispness estimates for selecting apples of diverse backgrounds in a breeding program. However, in testing a large number and diversity of fruit, experimenters should perform data curation and account for lower limits/thresholds of the instrument.

Effectiveness of Sprayed Bioactive Fruit Extracts in Counteracting Protein Oxidation in Lamb Cutlets Subjected to a High-Oxygen MAP.

High-oxygen packaging atmosphere (High-Ox-MAP) promotes meat protein oxidation and leads to texture deterioration. This study was conceived to assess the extent to which sprayed fruit extracts could inhibit the oxidative damage to proteins in lamb cutlets subjected to High-Ox-MAP (10 days/4 °C) and subsequent roasting (10 min/180 °C). Extracts from oaknut (Quercus ilex subsp. ballota; QI), rose hips (Rosa canina L.; RC), common hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna Jacq.; CM) and strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo L.; AU) were characterized for bioactive compounds (phenolic subclasses, tocopherols and ascorbic acid) and in vitro bioactivities. While the four fruits showed relevant antioxidant potential, CM had the highest phenolics and tocopherol content and that was reflected in efficient antiradical activity. The in vitro activity of this fruit to inhibit meat protein oxidation was, however, lower than that displayed by the other fruits. Taking the results altogether, CM was also found to be most efficient in protecting lamb cutlets from lipid oxidation. All fruits were able to inhibit thiols oxidation except RC, which seemed to reduce protein thiols. Among fruits, QI was the most efficient in protecting lamb cutlets against protein carbonylation as a plausible involvement of ellagitannins. The inhibition of protein oxidation by QI was reflected in significantly lower instrumental hardness in cooked lamb cutlets. Spraying lamb cutlets with extracts from QI, RC and CM improved consumers’ purchase intention after chilled storage. This antioxidant strategy seems to be a feasible and efficient solution to the pro-oxidative effects caused by High-Ox-MAP in red meat.

Effect of dairy by-products as milk replacers on quality attributes of ice cream

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of ricotta whey (RW), cheese whey (CW), and butter whey (BUW) as replacers of whole milk (WM) at different ratios (0:100, 25:75, 50:50, 75:25, and 100:0) in the physicochemical and sensory qualities of ice cream. All formulations, including a commercial sample used as reference, were analyzed for nutritional composition, energy value, pH, titratable acidity (TA), melting behavior, desorption index, instrumental color properties, instrumental hardness, and consumer sensory testing. Overall, the addition of RW, CW, and BUW increased the moisture content, TA, melting rate, and redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) values but decreased the pH, lightness (L*) value, energy value, levels of ash, protein, lipid, and carbohydrate. As exception, CW did not influence the TA, and BUW resulted in lower lipid reduction and in lower hardness changes, and it did not affect the content of ash, protein, and a* and b* values of ice creams. Any ice cream formulation had dietary fibers and a desorption index. Ricotta whey and CW at all ratios and BUW at 25% did not affect overall liking compared with the commercial sample, whereas purchase intention was only decreased by the addition of BUW from 50 to 100%. Ricotta whey at 75 and 100% decreased melting velocity and creaminess, and BUW at 50, 75, and 100% increased hardness, TA, and cream flavor but decreased creaminess, which contributed negatively to overall liking. Therefore, the evaluated dairy by-products, especially RW and CW, have great potential for replacing milk in ice creams.

Features of Measuring the Hardness of a Metal Surface Modified with Ultrafine Particles of Minerals

One of the important characteristics of the surface properties of metal parts subjected to friction is hardness. Hardness measurements are important for determining the operational characteristics of parts and monitoring the technological regimes of surface modification. However, hardness measurements of thin modified layers made by different methods can lead to differences in measurement results. The aim of the article was to study the hardness of a metal surface modified with ultrafine particles of minerals by two different methods (instrumental indentation and Vickers hardness measurement) and a comparative analysis of the measurement results obtained by these methods.Standard Vickers hardness measurements at loads of 0.025, 0.1 and 0.5 kgf showed a qualitative difference between the hardness values of the two samples modified with different mixtures of ultrafine particles of minerals and a large heterogeneity of the hardness values over the area. By the method of instrumental hardness, standard measurements were performed without preliminary selection of the indentation site (at a load of 1.05 N) and measurements during indentation into even sections (at low loads of 10 mN).It is noted that the high precision of measurements implemented by instrumental indentation, due to the large roughness of the samples, leads to large values of the error in calculating the measurement results. An additional difference in the results of measurements performed by two methods at shallow indentation depths may be due to the fact that the object under study has a complex structure consisting of a metal matrix and particles distributed over the depth of the sample. A possible way out of the situation lies in the transition from the use of hardness measures when calibrating instruments to standard samples of properties for which the constancy of mechanical properties in the measured range of indentation depths will be ensured, but which are not yet available in research practice. Therefore, at present, when carrying out work related to the search for optimal conditions for obtaining thin wear-resistant layers on the surface of metals modified with ultrafine particles of minerals, comparative measurements performed by one measurement method are recommended.

Use of ultrasound as a pre-treatment for vacuum cooling process of cooked broiler breasts

In this study, ultrasound application at two different frequencies (37 or 80 kHz) and durations (15 or 30 min) was used as a pre-treatment for raw broiler breasts, and its effect on cooling, color, textural and sensory characteristics of cooked broiler breasts during vacuum cooling process was determined. The anterior and posterior parts of broiler breast halves were carefully removed, and these parts with a 20 mm width were named as the regions A and B, respectively. Both regions were vacuum-packed and pre-treated by ultrasound, followed by oven-cooking in aluminum foils, and cooling time, weight loss and temperature distribution characteristics were determined. Besides sensory and textural properties, the effect of the ultrasound pre-treatment on the pH, dry matter and ash contents and color (CIELAB) values of cooked breasts was determined. During vacuum cooling, ultrasound pre-treatment significantly reduced cooling time required to cool cooked broiler breasts from 85 °C to 12.5 °C, and the lowest values for the regions A and B were obtained for the 30 min ultrasound pre-treatment at 37 kHz as 12.72 and 14.61 min, respectively (p < 0.05). The cooling losses of breasts from the regions A and B were 12.64 and 11.61%, respectively. In comparison to immersion pre-treatment, increasing the frequency and duration of ultrasound pre-treatment generally decreased cooking loss values for both A and B regions while cooling loss increased. Instrumental hardness values of breast samples for the 15 min ultrasound pre-treatment decreased while they increased with the 30 min pre-treatment (p < 0.05) at both frequencies. The redness values (a*) increased by ultrasound pre-treatment while the highest value was found for a 30 min pre-treatment at 80 kHz for both regions. Sensory hardness (on a 14.5 cm scale) results indicated that the highest value (9.33) was determined for a 30 min ultrasound pre-treatment at 37 kHz while the ultrasound pre-treatment at 37 kHz for 15 min had no negative effect on hardness compared to control samples (p > 0.05). In conclusion, ultrasound pre-treatment can be successfully used for the vacuum cooling process of broiler breasts for the reduction of cooling time, and a 30 min ultrasound pre-treatment at 37 kHz can provide relatively superior cooling characteristics.

Effect of protein oxidation and degradation on texture deterioration of ready-to-eat shrimps during storage.

The impact of protein oxidation and degradation on texture deterioration of ready-to-eat (RTE) shrimps during storage was investigated. The deterioration in texture during storage was manifested by decreased instrumental hardness, elasticity, chewiness, and recoverability. The occurrence of protein oxidation was revealed by a significant increase in the contents of free radicals and carbonyls. The increases in trichloroacetic acid-soluble peptide (TCA-soluble peptide) content and myofibril fragmentation index (MFI) were also observed, suggesting the degradation of protein. Pearson correlation analysis showed that the decreased instrumental texture parameters were negatively correlated with the increased carbonyl content, TCA-soluble peptide, MFI, porosity, and pore size as well as the decreased water-holding capacity (WHC), thus, it was hypothesized that protein oxidation and degradation were responsible for changes in the microstructure and reduction of WHC, which ultimately resulted in texture deterioration of RTE shrimps.

Effects of different starter cultures on the quality characteristics and shelf-life of fermented rice cake.

The effects of Makgeolli, dry yeast (DY), sourdough with dry yeast (SDDY) and sourdough with Makgeolli (SDMG) on the quality of fermented rice cakes (FRCs) stored at 23°C for 3days were determined. The acidity of SDDY and SDMG significantly increased with increasing fermentation time. The FRCs supplemented with sourdough had slightly higher moisture contents than others. The addition of DY and SDDY increased the specific volume of the FRC, in which its texture was softer. The addition of DY and sourdoughs significantly decreased the firming rate of crumb and improved the sensory qualities. The sourdoughs retarded amylopectin retrogradation, indicating their anti-staling effect on the FRC. Compared to the control, the shelf-lives of FRCs made with DY and SDDY were extended by 0.7 and 0.5days based on the instrumental hardness, respectively. DY and SDDY effectively improved the appearance and texture of FRC and extended its shelf-life.

Production of a spreadable emulsion gel using flaxseed oil in a matrix of hydrocolloids

In this study, different combinations of hydrocolloids were used to produce a low-oil spreadable emulsion gel using flaxseed oil. The effect of different levels of locust bean gum (0%–0.25%), κ-carrageenan (0%–2%), xanthan gum (0%–3.5%), and maltodextrin (0%–20%) on the sensory attributes of the product and instrumental hardness was investigated using response surface methodology. Optimization of the formulation by Design Expert software introduced formulations with high spreadability acceptance, desirable sensory properties, and acceptable instrumental hardness. The optimized formulation contained 0.09% locust bean gum, 1.95% carrageenan, 0.8% xanthan gum, and 10% maltodextrin mixed into an emulsion gel containing 19% flaxseed oil. The resultant emulsion gel was shear-thinning and had G′ value greater than G″ at all tested frequency ranges. This new product could be a healthy alternative for spreadable fat, margarine, and butter as it contains ω-3 essential fatty acids and low levels of saturated and total fat content. Practical applications Due to the rise in diseases associated with high fat intake, attempts are made to introduce new products with low fat content containing zero trans and low amounts of saturated fatty acids. However, lowering the fat content causes some textural and organoleptic problems. Gelling low-fat emulsions with the help of hydrocolloids to produce emulsion gels is a promising process to obtain more healthful foods. In this study, by using flaxseed oil as an oil phase and rich source of ω-3 fatty acids, new spreadable emulsion gel was produced. This product could be a healthy alternative for spreadable fats, margarines, and butters.

Structural and Micromechanical Properties of Nd:YAG Laser Marking Stainless Steel (AISI 304 and AISI 316).

The purpose of this study is to examine the microstructure and micromechanical properties of pulsed-laser irradiated stainless steel. The laser marking was conducted for AISI 304 and AISI 316 stainless steel samples through a Nd:YAG (1064 nm) laser. The influence of process parameters such as the pulse repetition rate and scanning speed have been considered. The microstructures of obtained samples were analyzed using confocal optical microscopy (COM). The continuous stiffness measurements (CSM) technique was applied for nanoindentional hardness and elastic modulus determination. The phase compositions of obtained specimens were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and confirmed by Raman spectroscopy. The results revealed that surface roughness is directly related to overlapping distance and the energy provided by a single pulse. The hardness of irradiated samples changes significantly with the indentation depth. The instrumental hardness HIT and elastic modulus EIT drop sharply with the rise of the indentation depth. Thus, the hardness enhancement can be observed as the indentation depth varies between 100–1000 nm for all exanimated samples. The maximum values of HIT and EIT were evaluated for the region of small depths (100–200 nm). The XRD results reveal the presence of iron and chromium oxides due to irradiation, which indicates a surface hardening effect.

Localization of plastic deformation in HCP-, BCC- and FCC-alloys at indentation

Using instrumental indentation, we studied the regularity of elastoplastic deformation of workpieces from alloys aluminum AMc, titanium VT23 and steels 45, HVG with FCC, HCP and BCC lattices, respectively. It was shown that with increasing indentation depth, instrumental hardness (H1T), elastic modulus (E1T), their ratios (HIT/EIT) tend to the values of classical microhardness Hµ, Young’s modulus E and their ratio (Hµ/E). The nature of localization of plastic deformation of alloys near the surface of the indenter is determined. The reason for the hard workability of titanium-based alloys is determined.

Effects of Golden Flaxseed Flour on Ice Recrystallization in Uvaia (Eugenia pyriformis Cambess.) Diet Sherbet

In this study, the effects of golden flaxseed flour (GFF; Linum usitatissimum) concentrations (0, 1, 2, and 3%; w/w) on ice recrystallization in uvaia (Eugenia pyriformis Cambess.) diet sherbets fortified with iron were evaluated. Experiments were performed to simulate the conditions of temperature fluctuations. Samples were transferred from storage (− 25 °C) to a freezer programmed to perform 14 temperature fluctuation cycles ranging from − 20 °C/12 h to − 10 °C/12 h (each cycle, 48 h). The chemical composition and pH were determined before the temperature cycles. Physical parameters such as overrun, rheological properties of steady and dynamic shear, hardness, thermal properties, and ice crystal sizes were measured before the temperature cycles and every 7 days for 4 weeks. The sensory attributes were evaluated using an optimized descriptive profile (ODP). The ash content and pH results were statistically significant, and their values increased as the GFF concentration increased. The results were significant for instrumental hardness, initial melt resistance, rheological behavior, frequency and temperature sweeps, ice crystal size, and recrystallization. In the sensory evaluation, scores for coarse texture decreased and scores for GFF flavor increased as the GFF concentration increased. The ODP results were consistent with those for the rheological parameters, which justified the ice crystal size and ice recrystallization observed in the sherbets.

Effect of Wheat Bran Incorporation on the Physical and Sensory Properties of a South African Cereal Fried Dough.

This study investigated the effect of wheat bran (WB) supplementation on the physical and sensory properties of a South African cereal fried dough (magwinya). The physical properties, instrumental texture, and sensory profile were determined for magwinya (100:0, control) and for wheat flour to wheat-bran ratios of 95:5 (MWB5), 90:10 (MWB10), 85:15 (MWB15), and 80:20 (MWB20). An increase in the proportion of WB in the fried dough showed no significant difference on the specific volume (1.47–1.54) of samples. The chroma value (30.19–22.29), lightness (35.92–28.98), and hue angle (55.03–47.77) decreased, while ∆E increased distinctly with the addition of WB. Magwinya supplemented with WB was less cohesive and easy to chew. Significant correlations were found between instrumental hardness and sensory springiness (r = −0.63; p < 0.05), as well as between instrumental cohesiveness and sensory springiness (r = −0.71; p < 0.01). Two principal components were identified, which accounted for 85.1% of the variance in the instrumental data. A substitution level of 5 and 10% WB was similar to the sensory properties of the control in taste, texture, and overall acceptability and can replace part of the wheat flour in the cereal fried dough production.

Probing the interactions between hardness and sensory of pistachio nuts during storage using principal component analysis.

Instrumental hardness and sensory characteristics of pistachio nuts such as flavor, texture, and overall acceptability were measured in three different packages (atmosphere, vacuum, and oxygen scavenger), at three different conditions temperatures (20, 35, and 50˚C) during 12 weeks’ storage. Results showed that the effect of temperature, storage time, and interaction effects of packaging and temperature, and packaging and storage time, and packaging and temperature and stoarge time on instrumental hardness were significant (p < 0.01). In sensory evaluation, the effect of treatments on sensory attributes was not significant. Instrumental hardness and sensory texture had a high correlation with each other. Principal component analysis (PCA) of the data obtained for the samples permitted the reduction of the variables to two principal components, which together explained 60.7% of the total variability.