Instantaneous Sampling Research Articles

Exploring the similarities between risk factors triggering depression in humans and elevated in-cage "inactive but awake" behavior in laboratory mice.

Depression is a human mental disorder that can also be inferred in non-human animals. This study explored whether time spent inactive but awake ("IBA") in the home-cage in mice was further triggered by risk factors similar to those increasing vulnerability to depression in humans (early life stress, genetic predispositions, adulthood stress). Eighteen DBA/2 J and 18 C57BL/6 J females were tested, of which half underwent as pups a daily maternal separation on post-natal days 2-14 (early-life stress "ELS") (other half left undisturbed). To assess the effect of the procedure, the time the dams from which the 18 subjects were born spent active in the nest (proxy for maternal behavior) was recorded on post-natal days 2, 6, 10 and 14 for 1 h before separation and following reunion (matched times for controls), using live instantaneous scan sampling (total: 96 scans/dam). For each ELS condition, about half of the pups were housed post-weaning (i.e., from 27 days old on average) in either barren (triggering IBA and depression-like symptoms) or larger, highly enriched cages (n = 4-5 per group). Time mice spent IBA post-weaning was observed blind to ELS treatment using live instantaneous scan sampling in two daily 90-min blocks, two days/week, for 6 weeks (total: 192 scans/mouse). Data were analyzed in R using generalized linear mixed models. The dams were significantly more active in the nest over time (p = 0.016), however with no significant difference between strains (p = 0.18), ELS conditions (p = 0.20) and before/after separation (p = 0.83). As predicted, post-weaning barren cages triggered significantly more time spent IBA in mice than enriched cages (p < 0.0001). However, neither ELS (p = 0.4) nor strain (p = 0.84) significantly influenced time mice spent IBA, with no significant interaction with environmental condition (ELS × environment: p = 0.2861; strain × environment: p = 0.5713). Our results therefore only partly support the hypothesis that greater time spent IBA in mice is triggered by risk factors for human depression. We discuss possible explanations for this and further research directions.

The Behavior of Sumatera Llourism (Nycticebus coucang) In The Capture Facilities, Primate Animal Study Center LPPM-IPB

Lorises are protected and endangered animals, according to the IUCN, because of poaching, habitat fragmentation, and illegal sales that occur. This study aims to determine the suitability of the cages by observing the behavior and use of the cages space by the sumatera lorises in Primate Animal Study Center. The method used is instantaneous vocal animal sampling with 10-minute intervals. The study results showed locomotion behavior at 46.69%, social behavior at 2.63%, elimination at 1.6%, rest at 25.11%, grooming at 6.16%, foraging at 2.4%, eating at 3.88%, and being alert at 11.53%. Lorises in Primate Animal Study Center use the entire cages space provided to carry out active and inactive activities. The conservation aspect is sufficiently supportive of the housing and feed aspects provided. Even though the feed given is not in accordance with its original habitat, therefore a change in the feed menu is necessary.

A methodological approach to compare continuous and instantaneous sampling and two methods to deal with animals out of sight on dairy cattle behavior and interaction with their calf in the first hours post-partum.

Animal behavior can provide useful information about animal welfare, but methods and tools used to gather behavioral data and data treatment can influence the results. Therefore, this study was carried out on dairy cow (Bos taurus) behavior and interaction with calves early post-partum aiming at comparing two sampling rules, namely continuous and instantaneous sampling at scan intervals of 30 s, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 10 min, and of two methods to deal with out of sight animals. The study was based on three assumptions: (1) continuous sampling provides the most complete and accurate data, allowing the observation of seldom behaviors and short events; (2) instantaneous sampling can provide accurate measurements of frequency and duration, especially at short scan intervals; (3) differences in behavioral results may occur depending on whether a correction for time out of sight is applied or not. Thus, 10 dams were observed from videos in the 2 h post-parturition. Ruminating, stereotypies, calf-biting and calf-butting were not recorded during the observation period. Other behaviors were observed only with continuous sampling or with continuous and instantaneous at 30-s scan intervals. The recoding of several behaviors was less accurate when applying longer scan intervals. Data from continuous and instantaneous sampling at 30-s scan intervals were compared with Wilcoxon test. Results showed no significant differences for posture, position in the pen and all behaviors (p > 0.05) except vocalizing (p = 0.003). The same test did not highlight significant differences due to method of dealing with out of sight for both sampling rules (p > 0.05). Correlation between continuous and instantaneous sampling were prevalently high at 30-s intervals and they decreased as the length of scan intervals increased for most behaviors. Results confirmed the first two assumptions suggesting that continuous sampling is more accurate, in particular for short and rare behaviors, and caution against the suitability of dam behavioral data collected using instantaneous sampling at scan intervals of minutes. The third assumption was not proven by this study. Results should be considered in light of the development of new technologies that relies on data acquired by sensors and imaging to monitor cow-calf welfare and behavior post-parturition.

Comparative analysis of mother–infant interactions between free-ranging and captive rhesus macaques in Kathmandu, Nepal

Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) are gregarious, social primates whose infants depend on maternal support for survival. This study aimed to compare mother–infant interactions between free-ranging rhesus macaques (Swayambhunath Temple) and those in a captive setting (Central Zoo, Lalitpur) in Kathmandu, Nepal. Interactions such as duration of proximity and duration of contact between the dyads and symmetry, duration of out-of-proximity, duration of carrying or leaving by the mother while moving, and duration of nipple contact were compared. Five-minute focal animal sampling of maternal macaques was used to record the duration of mother–infant interactions. The behavioral state of the mother was also recorded via instantaneous scan sampling at one-minute intervals during focal samples. Our results revealed that the durations of proximity and contact were greater in the free-ranging macaques than in the zoo macaques. Similarly, the duration of carrying or leaving by the mother while moving was also greater in the free-ranging condition. The free-ranging mother–infant dyads spent significantly more time in nipple contact than did those in the captive setting. The infants were found to be primarily responsible for initiating both contact and proximity in the captivity. The symmetry for contact was balanced in free-ranging macaques; however, the infants were more responsible than the mothers for proximity behavior.

Dietary flexibility of the greater bamboo lemur (Prolemur simus), a specialized feeder, in eastern Madagascar.

The degree of dietary flexibility in primates is species specific; some incorporate a wider array of resources than others. Extreme interannual weather variability in Madagascar results in seasonal resource scarcity which has been linked to specialized behaviors in lemurs. Prolemur simus, for example, has been considered an obligate specialist on large culm bamboo with >60% of its diet composed of woody bamboos requiring morphological and physiological adaptations to process. Recent studies reported an ever-expanding list of dietary items, suggesting that this species may not be an obligate specialist. However, long-term quantitative feeding data are unavailable across this species' range. To explore the dietary flexibility of P. simus, we collected data at two northern sites, Ambalafary and Sahavola, and one southern site, Vatovavy, from September 2010 to January 2016 and May 2017 to September 2018, respectively. In total, we recorded 4022 h of behavioral data using instantaneous sampling of adult males and females from one group in Ambalafary, and two groups each in Sahavola and Vatovavy. We recorded 45 plant species eaten by P. simus over 7 years. We also observed significant differences in seasonal dietary composition between study sites. In Ambalafary, bamboo was the most frequently observed resource consumed (92.2%); however, non-bamboo resources comprised nearly one-third of the diet of P. simus in Sahavola and over 60% in Vatovavy. Consumption of all bamboo resources increased during the dry season at Ambalafary and during the wet season at Vatovavy, but never exceeded non-bamboo feeding at the latter. Culm pith feeding was only observed at Ambalafary, where it was more common during the dry season. We identify P. simus as a bamboo facultative specialist capable of adjusting its feeding behavior to its environment, indicating greater dietary flexibility than previously documented, which may enable the species to survive in increasingly degraded habitats.

Feeding Postures and Substrate Use of François' Langurs (Trachypithecus francoisi) in the Limestone Forest of Southwest China.

The feeding posture of a group of François' langurs in Fusui County, Guangxi, was studied using instantaneous scan sampling from January to December 2016 to explore how the species adapts to karst limestone forests by collecting data on feeding posture, forest strata height, and substrate use. The results showed that leaves were the main food type of the François' langurs, with young leaves accounting for 64.97% ± 19.08% of the food composition, mature leaves accounting for 11.88% ± 12.09%, fruits accounting for 12.96% ± 12.89%, flowers accounting for 4.16% ± 4.06%, and other food types, including stems, petioles, and other unknown parts of the tree, accounting for a total of 6.03% ± 9.09%. The François' langurs had four main postures during feeding, of which sitting and bipedal standing feeding accounted for the largest proportions, at 85.99% ± 5.97% and 12.33% ± 6.08% of the total records, respectively. Quadrupedal standing and suspending were rarely observed and only appeared occasionally during feeding activities at the peak resting period, the two postures together accounting for 1.39% ± 1.59% of the total records. The feeding postures of the langurs had marked seasonal variation, as evidenced by the fact that seated feeding accounted for a significantly higher proportion of the total behavioral records in the rainy season than in the dry season, whereas feeding while standing bipedally was significantly more frequent during the dry season. Correlation analyses showed that feeding posture was correlated with food composition, showing a positive correlation between the proportion of bipedal standing feeding and mature leaf consumption. François' langurs preferred to forage in the lower and middle forest layers, with the lower forest layer accounting for 55.93% ± 16.50% of the total number of recordings and the middle forest layer accounting for 33.63% ± 18.33%. Langurs were less likely to forage on the ground (rocks), accounting for only 6.79% ± 4.78% of the records. The frequency of langurs feeding in the upper part of the forest layer was the lowest at 3.65% ± 2.73%. Additionally, in the dry season, langurs utilized the lower forest layer more but used the middle forest layer less than in the rainy season. This study demonstrates that the spatial distribution of foods in the limestone forest has an important effect on the feeding posture of François' langurs and their forest layer utilization.

Validation of behavioural sampling techniques for 20-25 kg pigs during transport

Monitoring behaviour during transport is challenging due to the design of vehicles and often limited deck height. The aim of the present study was to validate behavioural sampling techniques during transport. This study used data from four journeys, constituting a subset of 32 experimental journeys in a commercial vehicle transporting weaners of 20–25 kg for 23 h. In each journey, behaviour was observed in two compartments holding pigs, each with a deck height of either 60 cm or 90 cm.Body posture (upright, lying, sitting) was recorded using instantaneous scan sampling at 1 min intervals (considered ‘true’ occurrence). Based on these, less frequent sampling intervals were created (5, 10, 15, 30, and 60 min) and the resulting percentages of behaviour per hour were compared. Occurrences of inter-pig aggressive events were recorded using continuous sampling. It was investigated whether the occurrence of aggression when observed during selected recording sessions per hour (20, 30 and 40 min/h) differed from observing the whole hour throughout the journey (the ‘true’ occurrence).Two methods were used to compare sampling techniques. First, estimates of body posture and aggression were pairwise compared with the ‘true’ occurrence using regression metrics (RMSE, MAE, R2). The results showed that instantaneous scan sampling of body posture at 15 min intervals or less did reflect the ‘true’ values, whereas for aggression use of shorter recording sessions of 20 min/h generally did not reflect the ‘true’ values.Secondly, similar results were achieved by using mixed effects logistic regression. These models showed that sampling every 30 min differed from the ‘true’ values, whereas scanning in 5-, 15- or 60 min intervals did not. Compared with sampling the whole hour, the total duration of aggression was significantly underestimated in all three recording sessions (20, 30 and 40 min/h), while the total frequency of aggression was only significantly underestimated in 20 min/h recording session.Based on results of this study, the use of instantaneous scan sampling intervals of 15 min or less is considered valid for analyses of body postures during long distance transport of 20–25 kg pigs. Due to the sporadic occurrence of aggressive interactions, continuous sampling using recording sessions of 20 min cannot be recommended. Using longer recording sessions of 30 or 40 min/h should be approached with caution dependent on the specific scientific context.

Observational Study on Reproductive Behavior in Semi-Wild Sambar Deer (Rusa unicolor) for Wildlife Conservation and Assisted Reproductive Management

Understanding the reproductive behaviors of different wildlife species is essential to unravel their reproductive strategies, ecological adaptations, and conservation requirements. This study delved into the reproductive biology of the sambar deer (Rusa unicolor), with a focus on promoting assisted reproductive technology for wildlife conservation and investigating the reproductive behaviors of male and female sambar deer. The study was conducted at Pusat Konservasi Hidupan Liar (PKHL) Sungkai, Perak, Malaysia. The observation focused on one male and two female sambar deer. Direct observations of the deer were conducted for 14 days in September 2022. The direct observations were performed in the morning (Session 1= 8-10 am), afternoon (Session 2 = 10-12 pm), and evening (Session 3= 3-5 pm), using the instantaneous sampling method. A total of 75 behavior instances were recorded, in which male deer exhibited the most reproductive behavior at 58 instances (77.3% of the total reproductive behavior). Successful mating was observed on day 6, elucidating a crepuscular preference in the male animal in exhibiting reproductive behavior. The female’s reproductive behavior lasted for a short period, from 24 hours for Female 2 and 72 hours for Female 1. In conclusion, there was a distinct behavior between the male and female deer during the rutting season. Understanding the reproductive behavior to estimate the length of estrus can be useful as a non-invasive tool to detect heat and can be considered to improve breeding management and implement assisted reproductive technology.

Activity budget of a group of black-horned capuchin monkeys (Sapajus nigritus) in an urban environment

Urban growth and human impacts on the environment have forced animals to adjust to habitat fragmentation and reduced home ranges. Capuchin monkeys are known for their great social and behavioral flexibility, occupying even highly urbanized environments in a way that the time budget of this primate in synanthropic situation may be affected by the area they inhabit. This study aims to analyze the activity budget of a group of Sapajus nigritus living in an anthropized area, 1) comparing the behavioral frequencies in urbanized areas and forest fragments; 2) comparing behavioral frequencies in different sex-age classes. During the study, the number of individuals ranged from 35 to 40 individuals identified based on sex-age classes. Behavioral data were collected using the instantaneous scan sampling method, for two minutes with eight-minute intervals. We obtained 319 scans over 28 days, distributed between November 2021 and June 2022, with eight hours per day. We compared the behaviors different areas and between sex-age classes using the Kruskal-Wallis’s test. Overall, the group performed a higher frequency of traveling (21.22%), followed by foraging (18.07%), feeding (16.57%) and vigilance (15.61%). The frequency of behaviors varied between areas, with vigilance, social, resting, interaction with humans and self-activity more frequent in urbanized areas compared to forest fragments. We also found variation between the sex-age classes, primarily with juveniles foraging more and adults performing more vigilance. The differences in the behaviors performed by the group express the behavioral flexibility of S. nigritus, adapting its activity pattern according to the area occupied.

The feeding behavior and food preferences of siamang (Symphalangus syndactylus Raffles, 1821) at Taman Safari Indonesia Bogor

Siamang (Symphalangus syndactylus Raffles, 1821) is a diurnal primate that belongs to the endangered category, according to the IUCN. Siamangs are classified as arboreal and frugivorous animals that selectively choose food. Siamang’s food preferences tend to be determined by the fruit availability in its habitat. One of the efforts to protect siamangs is ex-situ conservation. Feeding in ex-situ conservation should be adjusted to provide in their natural habitat. This study aims to identify siamang’s feeding behavior and food preferences in one of the ex-situ conservation facilities, namely Taman Safari Indonesia Bogor. The objects of observation consisted of two adult males, one adult female, and one sub-adult female. The methods used were instantaneous sampling, focal animal sampling, and ad-libitum sampling—statistical analysis using One-Way ANOVA and Two-Way ANOVA with Tukey’s test. The frequency and duration of siamang feeding behavior differed significantly between age classes, while no difference was based on sex. Food preferences among individuals are influenced by gender. Males prefer fruits such as apples and salak over vegetables, while females prefer soft-stemmed vegetables, namely water spinach and spinach.

Diurnal activity budget and aggressive behaviour during feeding in captive Javan deer (Cervus timorensis)

Javan deer (Cervus timorensis) is an Indonesia’s native species which has been introduced to Malaysia and kept in captivity for various purposes such as deer farming, education and tourist attraction. Despite being farmed in Malaysia since early 1990s, very limited studies have been conducted to investigate the behaviour of captive Javan deer which is important as monitoring tool for their overall well-being. Therefore, in this study the diurnal activity of captive Javan deer and their aggressive behaviour during feeding were investigated. The activity budget was determine using instantaneous scan sampling while continuous observation was used to observe aggressive behaviour during feeding. From the results, adult deer showed significantly higher proportion in displaying alert and feeding behaviour compared to the juvenile. They also displayed significantly higher alert and feeding behaviour in the morning compared to the afternoon session. Juvenile on the other hand were observed to be more inactive compared to adult. During concentrate feeding, adult displayed significantly higher aggressive behaviour compared to the juvenile. As the study on activity budget can give insight on behavioural alteration due to environmental changes, further behavioural studies on Javan deer in different captivity should be conducted to enhance their welfare and general well-being.

Habituation and tolerance in coyotes (Canis latrans), a flexible urban predator

AbstractThe behavioral mechanisms by which urban wildlife adapt to urban landscapes and disturbances within these environments are poorly understood. Such understanding can be important for wildlife managers, especially if the species is of concern to human and pet safety, such as the coyote (Canis latrans). Here, we evaluate coyote tolerance to the presence of humans, pets, and anthropogenic landscapes, to better understand how coyotes are conditioned to live in urbanizing landscapes. Using continuous focal follow and instantaneous scan sampling, we collected data on metrics of anthropogenic development and coyote flight response. We used cumulative link mixed models to determine that intensity of behavioral response to observation was impacted by habitat, human visitation to sites, and coyote group composition. These data may be useful to managers for profiling potentially problematic individual animals and identifying strategies for human–coyote coexistence.

Variation in litter occupancy and dust bathing patterns among layer strains following periods of litter restriction

Producers are moving toward cage-free systems to house laying hens. These include aviary styles with multilevel wire enclosures and litter areas on the floor. In aviaries with doors hens can be confined within the tiered enclosure, which can be done to promote oviposition in nests and prevent hens from laying eggs in litter. However, there are multiple genetic strains of laying hen used in the egg industry, and some show different temporal patterns for key behaviors that could affect when they want to be on litter. For example, though dust bathing by laying hens is typically considered to peak in early afternoon, there may be variation in timing of motivation to dust bathe among strains. Differences in hens' temporal patterns, coupled with aviary configurations or management practices, may restricts birds' ability to perform important behaviors, such as dust bathing (DB), when they would most prefer to do them. Our objective was to determine if there were strain differences in the temporal pattern of DB. We examined the timing of DB in 4 strains of laying hen (Hy-Line Brown [HB], Bovans Brown [BB], DeKalb White [DW], and Hy-Line W36 [W36]) housed in aviaries using 144 hens of each strain per aviary unit (4 units/strain). We recorded the number of hens DB and on litter using instantaneous scan sampling every 5 min using video collected at 26 and 28 wk of age beginning at 11:35 (when litter access began each day) to 20:00 (lights off). Brown strains acclimated to litter access more slowly than white strains. Hens of all strains DB most often soon after gaining access to litter, and more white hens (DW and W36) DB simultaneously and in the presence of more conspecifics. Further examination of diurnal rhythm of behaviors, such as dust bathing, under unconstrained conditions by a range of genetic strains of laying hens is needed to design management practices and aviary styles that best meet hens' needs.

Evaluating the Behaviour of Sahiwal Calves under Azolla pinnata Feeding During the Cold Season

The purpose of the present research was to evaluate the feeding behaviour of Sahiwal calves raised under Azolla pinnata feeding throughout the cold season in the morning hours. Eighteen female Sahiwal calves weighing 56 kg at four months of age were used for this experiment, and they were split into three treatment groups. Treatment groups T1 and T2 received 15% and 30% of their concentrate's protein supplementation from Azolla pinnata, respectively, whereas the control group received diet that was complied with ICAR, 2013 feeding guidelines. Feeding behaviour of calves were analysed with the help of instantaneous scan sampling technique and weekly 8 hours of behaviour was recoreded ( 2 hours in a day, four times per week) in early morning hours from 09.00 to 11.00 am. Eating behaviour at 1st month of study was statistically significant in treatment groups T1 (26.5±0.29) and T2 group (26.5±0.20) as compared to control group (24.375±0.23) while numerically higher in treatment groups over the whole study period as Azolla pinnata has better mineral profiling and protein rich source, rumination time period was higher in T1 and T2 group and it might be due to the better resting behaviour in the treatment groups. However, better health status was reported in treatment groups over the control groups. From, this study it may be concluded that Azolla pinnata feeding may acts as an alternate protein source by improving the feeding and resting behaviour without affecting the overall performance of calves.

Disputes over provisioned resources are no more intense between groups than within groups in free-ranging Sapajus libidinosus.

Socioecological models predict that disputes between primate groups will be more intense than those within groups, given that the systematic loss of contests over a given resource will restrict the access of all of the members of that group to that resource. Higher levels of aggression are also expected for provisioned resources that have a more lucrative cost:benefit ratio. The levels of aggression in and between two free-ranging tufted capuchin monkey (Sapajus libidinosus) groups in the context of daily provisioning with bananas were evaluated. The aim of a complementary analysis was to identify possible predictors of the frequency of disputes at the site of the provisioned resource. The disputes were recorded using all-events sampling, while the social behaviour of the study groups was recorded by instantaneous scan sampling. The data were analysed using t-test, Mann-Whitney's U, and generalised linear modelling. Between-group disputes were no more intense than within-group events, and did not involve more individuals, or more adult females. The frequency of disputes increased as the number of individuals eating bananas increased. No evidence was found that disputes between groups were any more intense than those within groups. Dominance patterns may have affected these findings, by mediating intergroup disputes. An increase in the number of competitors affected the frequency of disputes at the site of the provisioned resource.

PSX-19 Does Housing Pigs with Access to a Ramp Alter Pig Behavior During the Nursery period?

Abstract Previous work by our group has found that housing pigs with a ramp in the pen during only the nursery period increased the speed of trailer ramp loading at marketing. However, the presence of the ramp may also alter pig behavior during the nursery period. The objective of this study was to evaluate whether ramp exposure affects pig behavior during the nursery period. We predicted that pigs exposed to a ramp would exhibit reduced aggressive behaviors, but similar eating, drinking, and postural behaviors during the nursery period compared with pigs not given access to a ramp. Two hundred four pigs (17 to 21 d of age) were placed in 8 pens (n = 24 to 27 pigs per pen) that were allocated to 1 of 2 treatments: 1) RAMP (n = 4 pens; standard commercial pen equipped with a ramp), or 2) CONTROL (n = 4 pens; standard commercial pen without a ramp). One day after placement (D1) and again 18 days later (D2), incidences of eating, drinking, aggressive, and postural (standing, lying) behaviors within each pen were collected for a period of 60 min at 0800, 1200, and 1600 h using a 5-min instantaneous scan sampling strategy. Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure in SAS with treatment, experimental day (D1, D2), hour (0800, 1200, 1600 h), and all 2-way interactions as fixed effects. Pen was included as a random effect. No treatment differences (P &amp;gt; 0.55) were detected for the evaluated behaviors. Greater incidences of eating were observed on D2 than on D1 (P &amp;lt; 0.0001). There were fewer pigs drinking at 1600 h on D1 than all other time points (P &amp;lt; 0.04) except for 1200 h on D1 (P = 0.64). There were also fewer pigs drinking at 1200 h on D1 than at 1600 h on D2 (P = 0.047). A greater incidence of aggressive behavior was observed at 0800 h on D1 compared with all other time points (P &amp;lt; 0.01), with no other differences observed (P &amp;gt; 0.40). Standing behavior was greater at 0800 h on D1 compared with all other time points (P &amp;lt; 0.02) except for 1600 h on D2 (P = 0.42). There were also fewer incidences of standing at 1600 h on D1 than 0800 or 1200 h on D2 (P = 0.01 and 0.03, respectively). Finally, there were more lying incidences at 1600 h on D1 than all other time points (P &amp;lt; 0.02) except for 1200 h on D1 (P = 0.81). Taken together, eating, drinking, aggressive, and postural behaviors changed by experimental day and hour after weaning. However, pig behavior was not altered due to ramp exposure.

A comparison of scan and focal sampling in estimating activity budgets, diet composition, and proximity patterns of a wild pair-living primate.

The choice of behavioral sampling method can impact the outcome of data collection, however, few direct comparisons between methods have been made. We compared the performance of instantaneous group scan sampling (scan sampling) and focal continuous sampling with variable session durations (focal sampling) in estimating activity patterns, diet composition, and spatial proximity in seven groups of wild coppery titi monkeys (Plecturocebus cupreus) in Peruvian Amazonia. We used a series of paired samples Wilcoxon tests to compare daily proportions of time allocated to each type of activity/food/proximity category in each sampling method. In addition, we compared our results with those of other studies conducted on the same population of titi monkeys at other times. Focal sampling provided significantly lower estimates for moving time and significantly higher estimates for resting time compared to scan sampling, likely because scan sampling tends to give higher estimates of more conspicuous behaviors and lower estimates of less conspicuous behaviors. For diet composition, scan sampling gave similar results to other studies, while focal sampling gave significantly lower estimates for feeding on fruits and higher estimates for feeding on arthropods. The most likely reason is that focal sampling with variable session durations tends to overestimate behaviors during which a focal animal is less likely to go out of view, such as feeding on arthropods in the lower strata of the forest. Our results suggest that a pilot study comparing different methods should be conducted prior to collecting data, as not all methods are interchangeable.

Behavioral activity and range patterns of the endemic Gelada monkey (Theropithecus gelada) in and around Jer Silase Monastery in North Shoa Zone, Ethiopia

Abstract The present study investigated the activity, range, and habitat utilization patterns of the Endemic Gelada Monkey (Theropithecus gelada) in and around Jer Silase Monastery in North Shoa Zone, Ethiopia. The study was conducted from January 2021 to October 2021 by considering the dry and wet seasons and stratifying the study area into natural forest, cliff/rocky, and farmland habitats. An instantaneous scan sampling method was employed to collect behavioral data. The activity patterns of three selected focal groups of Gelada monkeys were studied. GPS points of their predominant behavioral activities were recorded daily every 15 minutes from 7:00 to 18:00 for 12 days every month. A total of 5,592 individual activity records were obtained from 2312 scan samplings taken over 120 study days. Feeding comprised 54.52% of the activity time, followed by moving at 20.67% and socialization at 11.95%. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed that the time allocated to different activity types varied significantly over the year with the month (Roy’s Largest Root = 2.7, F4,22 = 13.2, p &lt; 0.001, partial η2 = 0.653). The longest mean monthly travel distance was 2817.61 ± 582.57 m, recorded at the Cliff/rocky habitat during the wet season. Gelada monkeys’ daily range length and home range size extended more in the dry season. These findings may be explained by reduced habitat quality associated with livestock grazing, agricultural expansion, and charcoal production. Therefore, appropriate conservation measures should be implemented to minimize such adverse effects and conserve the endemic Gelada Monkey.

Do calves hide after birth? Postpartum behavior of dairy calves and their dams housed in individual calving pens

Under near-natural conditions, domesticated dairy calves hide the first days after birth before cow and calf join the herd. In commercial dairy production, an opportunity to seclude from the herd after parturition is rarely given. This study aimed to investigate the effect of providing a covered area in an individual calving pen on maternal and neonatal calf behavior. Forty-six cow-calf pairs were housed in either an individual uncovered calving pen with 4 open sides or an individual partially covered calving pen with 3 covered sides, providing a secluded area for the cow and calf. Calf position in the pen, maternal behavior, and proximity between the cow and calf were recorded for the first 72 h after birth using instantaneous sampling at 5-min intervals. Data were analyzed using linear mixed effect models. The duration of maternal sniffing and licking, the duration of time the cow spent standing with her head over the calf, and the time spent in close proximity to the calf were higher during the first 24 h after birth compared with later days, reflecting intense maternal behavior during this early period. Calves did not show a preference for staying in the covered side of the pen. Calves in covered pens received more maternal sniffing and licking, indicating that the provision of cover postpartum facilitated maternal behavior and the formation of the maternal-filial bond the first few days after birth.

Standardized ileal digestible tryptophan and lysine affects the eating and sleeping behavior of 15-30 kg barrows.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of standardized ileal digestible (SID) tryptophan (Trp) and lysine (Lys) levels on eating and sleeping behavior and the respective feed intake of barrows. Sixty-four pigs, averaging 15.00 ± 1.63 kg of initial body weight, were used and distributed in a randomized blocks design, in a 4 × 4 factorial scheme, consisting of four levels of SID Trp (0.155, 0.185, 0.215, 0.245%) and four levels of SID Lys (0.972, 1.112, 1.252, and 1.392%). Behavior evaluation was performed by an instantaneous sampling using 10-min intervals during 24 h, at each 7 days (days 7, 14, and 21), and each day was divided into four times of 6 h each one (08:30-14:20, 14:30-20:20, 20:30-02:20, and 02:30-08:20 h), during all the experimental period, yielding a total of 3 × 24 h behavior recordings (72 h) × 6 10-min intervals, totalizing 432 observations per animal. Data were analyzed by classifying behavior into eating or sleeping. All these behaviors were measured in order to obtain the estimated frequency of the eating and sleeping behaviors. Changes were observed (P<0.05) for all the behavioral parameters during the starting phase. SID Trp and SID Lys showed an interactive positive effect on the estimated frequency of eating behavior, and mainly SID Trp increased the estimated frequency of the sleeping behavior of starting pigs in the nocturnal time. Pig diets with increasing levels of SID Trp and SID Lys until 0.245 and 1.392%, respectively, increased the average daily feed intake, and the interaction of the amino acids increased the estimated frequency of eating behavior during all the starting phase, and mainly the increasing levels of SID Trp increased the estimated frequency of sleeping behavior of pigs from the middle to the end of the starting phase, from 2:30 to 8:20 h.