Instances Of Genocide Research Articles

Cultural Heritage, Genocide, and Normative Agency

AbstractIn this article, I explore the possibility of treating cultural destruction and the destruction of cultural heritage as a genocidal act. My argument proceeds in two stages. I first suggest that we ought to view cultural destruction as a necessary by‐product of genocide and a member of a set of jointly sufficient conditions for genocide. However, to securely establish that cultural destruction and the destruction of cultural heritage ought to be viewed as genocidal acts, we need to additionally show why loss of culture and heritage are significant harms, comparable to other instances of genocide. In light of this, I then propose an account of the harms of cultural destruction that grounds these harms in loss of normative agency and show how destruction of cultural heritage contributes to this. In particular, I argue that cultural heritage can be viewed both as a condition for normative agency and as itself an expression of normative agency.

Reconsidering the Classification of Perpetrators in instances of Genocide and Mass Atrocity

The terms “primary”, “mid-level” and “lower level” are employed to qualify perpetrators of mass atrocities, based on the magnitude of guilt and criminal responsibility. Could this classification be a misnomer? Could the relationship among perpetrators, or the roles they assume be more intricate, warranting a reassessment of the existing hierarchy? This paper explores the need to be more circumspect in penning perpetrators in categories, especially in complex scenarios of mass atrocity. To do so, the Non-Solitarist View of Human Identity and Framing Theory are used to explore the matter, with a focus on perpetrators of the Khmer Rouge era.

Migrant supply chain networks: an empirically based typology

Managing migrant supply networks is a critical issue both domestically and internationally. In this research, using a supply chain perspective, a typology is developed to provide recommendations for migration stakeholders. The typology can be used to assess factors within a migrant network including: pressure to migrate, the network agility, and the total cost of migration. The typology identifies specific investments that developmental agents can focus on to mitigate the pressure to migrate. In instances of genocide and other forms of forced migration, the model identifies ways stakeholders can support agile refugee flows to ensure faster and safer travel and to shorten transit times.

Teaching “Other” Genocides: Exploring the Intersection of Global Education and Genocide Studies

Holocaust education in the United States began as a grassroots movement during the 1970s. Today, more than 30 states mandate the teaching of the Holocaust; however, far less attention is given in schools to other 20th-century instances of genocide. Totten has suggested that by neglecting “other” genocides (e.g., Darfur, Rwanda, and Cambodia), these events may not be perceived as significant (when compared to the Holocaust), and moreover, students may fail to realize that genocide has occurred multiple times since 1945 and thus no longer a threat today. Given the implications surrounding Totten’s assertion and the global nature of genocide and its reach, we aim to provide social studies teachers and teacher educators with a series of accessible suggestions for incorporating “other” genocides into their practice—suggestions that are aligned and situated within Hanvey’s seminal conceptual frame for global education.

Testing Hagan and Rymond-Richmond’s collective action theory of genocide

John Hagan and Wenona Rymond-Richmond proposed a collective action theory of genocide in their book ‘Darfur and the Crime of Genocide’. They then tested their theory using data from the Atrocities Documentation Survey conducted in Chad. The theory explains the Darfur genocide well and is supported by empirical data. Since there is little criminological theoretical work on genocide, the collective action theory was a great step forward. The next step in the process should be to see if the theory is generalisable to other instances of genocide. There may be much to learn in testing Hagan and Rymond-Richmond’s theory for generalisability including identifying any modifications that may advance the current theoretical work on the criminology of genocide.

Environmental Degradation and Genocide, 1958–2007

While several studies have examined the relationship between various aspects of environmental degradation and civil conflict, there has been surprisingly little attention paid to the relationship between environmental degradation and instances of genocide and politicide. Although mentioned in the popular press as a key cause for instances of state-sponsored mass killings in Rwanda and Darfur, there is little in the way of quantitative empirical work that investigates the linkage between environmental degradation and genocide. In this paper, the relationship between freshwater and land degradation and the incidence of a genocidal and/or politicidal acts is examined. More specifically, it is examined whether environmental factors helped ‘trigger’ genocidal and/or politicidal acts in 61 conflict-prone countries from 1958 to 2007. It was found that land pressures contribute to the likelihood of the incidence of genocides and politicides more so than declines in freshwater availability, but civil war incidence and regime type remain powerful explanatory factors for state-sponsored mass murder.

“The Next Darfur” and Accountability for the Failure to Prevent Genocide

Genocide has occurred throughout history and the task of prevention may sometimes appear futile in spite of the clear obligation to prevent in the 1948 Genocide Convention. Taking Raoul Wallenberg’s inspiration to the collective consciousness as a backdrop, this article aims to explore the different accountability mechanisms that give strength to the legal obligation to prevent genocide. The situation in Sudan and South Sudan provides a focal point as it tests the international community’s resolve to act to prevent future instances of genocide within the parameters of the responsibility to protect. In relation to Darfur, individual responsibility of senior leaders has taken centre-stage, but this should not divert the spotlight from other accountability options focused on the state and international organisations. An attempt is made to connect the different aspects of the legal regime with reference to the goal of ensuring accountability if prevention fails in the context of Sudan and South Sudan.

Genocide before the Holocaust

There is an appalling symmetry to the many instances of genocide that the late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century world witnessed. In the wake of the breakup of the Hapsburg, Ottoman and Romanov empires, minority populations throughout those lands were persecuted, expelled and eliminated. The reason for the deplorable decimations of communities - Jews in Imperial Russia and Ukraine; Ottoman Assyrians, Armenians and Muslims from the Caucasus and Balkans - was, Cathie Carmichael contends, located in the very roots of the new nation-states arising from the imperial rubble. The question of who should be included in the nation - and which groups were now to be deemed 'suspect' or 'alien' - was one that preoccupied and divided Europe long before the Holocaust. Examining all the major episodes of ethnic cleansing in Europe up until 1941, Carmichael shows how hotbeds of nationalism, racism and developmentalism resulted in devastating manifestations of genocidal ideology. Dramatic, perceptive and poignant, this is the story of disppearing civilizations - precursors to one of humanity's worst atrocities, and part of the legacy of genocide in the modern world. Cathie Carmichael is Senior Lecturer in Modern European History at the University of East Anglia. Her previous books include 'Ethnic Cleansing in the Balkans', 'Language and Nationalism in Europe', and 'Slovenia and the Slovenes'.

Genocide as a Fact of Common Knowledge

AbstractJudicial notice has become a widely used tool in the practice of international criminal tribunals but its use has always been constrained by the fair trial rights of the accused. This article considers the possible impact on those rights of the decision of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) Appeals Chamber to take judicial notice of the genocide in Rwanda as a notorious fact against the backdrop of the legal requirements for judicial notice as a fact of common knowledge and as an adjudicated fact. The question whether it would have been more appropriate to notice the Rwandan genocide as an adjudicated fact is addressed in the context of the implications for other instances of genocide, for example Srebrenica.

“Native Christians Massacred”: The Ottoman Genocide of the Assyrians during World War I

Ottoman Empire's widespread persecution of Assyrian civilians during World War I constituted a form of genocide, the present-day term for an attempt to destroy a national, ethnic, or religious group, in whole or in part. Although there were no extermination camps on the scale of Auschwitz, the genocide of the Assyrians resembled the Holocaust of Jews, Slavs, Roma people, leftists, homosexuals, and other minorities under Nazi occupation during World War II because Ottoman soldiers and their Kurdish and Persian militia allies subjected hundreds of thousands of Assyrians to a deliberate and of massacre, torture, abduction, deportation, impoverishment, and cultural and ethnic destruction. According to the American ambassador to Constantinople from 1913 to 1916, Henry I. Morgenthau, widely regarded as a principal source of information on the Armenian genocide: The story which I have told about the Armenians I could also tell with certain modifications about the Greeks and the as Assyrians were often known to the West. He added that the Ottoman Empire decided to apply the same methods [of wholesale massacre] on a larger scale not only to the Greeks but to the Armenians, Syrians, Nestorians [i.e., Assyrians], and others of its subject peoples. In 1918, according to the Los Angeles Times, Ambassador Morgenthau confirmed that the Ottoman Empire had fully 2,000,000 men, women, and children?Greeks, Assyrians, Armenians; fully 1,500,000 Armenians.This article will argue that the hesitation to recognize the Assyrian genocide is unjustified, for the evidence is overwhelming that Turks and their Kurdish allies massacred hundreds of thousands of Assyrians in order to exterminate the Christian population; raped and enslaved thousands of Assyrian women in a fashion; and deported the Assyrians en masse from their ancestral lands under conditions that led to famine and widespread death. Established principles of international law outlawed this war of extermination against Ottoman Christian civilians before it was embarked upon, and ample evidence of genocidal intent has surfaced in the form of admissions by Ottoman officials. Nevertheless, the international community has been hesitant to recognize the Assyrian experience as an instance of genocide. more rapid legal recognition of the Armenian genocide is attributable to the larger numbers of Armenian victims and survivors, the dispersion and political voicelessness of the Assyrian people, and more copious evidence of an intention on the part of the Ottomans to wipe out the Armenians.In conclusion, I will contend that the legal and historical recognition of the Assyrian genocide at the hands of the Ottomans is vital to focus the world's attention on the Assyrian remnant in Iraq. That remnant has been scattered by more than a century of massacre, discrimination, and religious persecution into non-viable communities that are still waiting for their homelands and human rights to be restored. U.S. officials have documented an ethnic-cleansing campaign against Assyrians in present-day Iraq, with systematic attacks against Assyrian civilians, bombings of Assyrian churches, and the driving of most Assyrians out of Iraq. Genocide and ethnic cleansing give rise to legally enforceable claims for reparation and restoration of property and the value of lives lost. But because their genocide has rarely been recognized, the Assyrians driven from their homes over the past century have received relatively little by way of compensation or assistance with rebuilding. This article calls upon the international community to focus its efforts on the security and resettlement of the Assyrian people.

Psychosocial roots of genocide: risk, prevention, and intervention

Staub (1989), Rummel (1996), and others (e.g. Hirsch, 1995; Kressel, 1996; Stanton, 1998) have written extensively about the underlying root conditions and causes of genocide and mass violence. These theoretical models and the research related to genocide and mass violence can be integrated and augmented to create a risk analysis model aimed at the prevention of genocide. The spiraling risk for fomentation of enmity within a group and directed against those defined as “other” can be assessed by examining a myriad of factors underlying mass violence and genocide. Factors including group cultural history, situational factors, social psychological factors and context, and interpersonal factors, can be examined to provide an assessment of risk for movement along a path of mass violence with hallmarks including stigmatization, dehumanization, moral disengagement, moral exclusion, impunity, and bystander interactions. Risk assessment can then be applied to an analysis aimed at the selection of effective prevention strategies. It is important to note that variations of this risk analysis model can be applied to mass violence in many forms and contexts. However, the dynamics shift depending on whether one is discussing forms of terrorism, democide, genocide, etc. Nonetheless, the fundamental features of the model, such as risk factors associated with group cultural history, the role of authoritarian leaders, and the manipulation of social psychological factors to propel a group down the path of mass violence remain the same. Additionally, steps aimed at the prevention of genocide are also applicable to other forms of mass violence. It should be acknowledged that there is no general agreement as to a non-legal definition of genocide. For the purpose of this article, the definition outlined by Fein (1994a) will be used. Additionally, this essay will focus specifically on genocide, in particular on genocide as it occurs within nation-states against an identifiable target group. Although this model can be used to discuss other instances of genocide, such as the threat of genocide committed by a nation-state outside of its initial boundaries (e.g. the Ukrainian famine orchestrated by the Soviets), the dynamics shift. For example, self-interest comes to play a much larger role and need for manipulation of social psychological factors may be highly diminished if intrastate media is controlled.

Libraries, Nationalism, and Armed Conflict in the Twentieth Century

Collective memory is an important feature of group identity. The collective memory, or common history of a group, is in many cases represented by its cultural institutions, including libraries. During the twentieth century, many instances of genocide, or attacks on groups, occurred. This continues today. These attacks often include aggression against the cultural institutions which, as evidence of a separate cultural identity, are seen to give political legitimacy to the group under attack. This article sees the many instances of premeditated attacks on libraries as integral parts of genocidal campaigns. Examples from the Second World War are explored, as are events in the former Yugoslavia. The role librarians have played in these examples is discussed and practical ways in which librarians and the international library community can combat such attacks are identified. Finally, it is argued that the most effective way to prevent attacks on libraries is the promotion of pluralism and respect for the cultural heritage of others. Libraries can promote pluralism through their collections, their organisation, and their approach to information. In educating their users to respect other cultures, libraries contribute to safeguarding the cultural heritage of those represented by their collections.

Some Philosophical and Legal Reflections on Remembering the Holocaust

In my paper I propose to explore a defensible philosophical basis for affirming the significant uniqueness of the Holocaust in relation to other similar instances of genocide and, accordingly, to contribute to efforts to better secure its place in history for future generations, especially in terms of its impact on aspects of institutionalized remembrance in law and morality. The twentieth century has been a century of democide (a state's killing of its own people) and genocide (a state's murder of its own minorities in the general population): it ought to be or to promote a century of indelible remembrance. Perhaps the twenty-first century will be one not only of further institutionalized forms of remembrance to dissuade future genocidists, but also of the actualization of more effective internal mechanisms for preventing genocidal policies and practices. Short of prevention, however, mechanisms ought to be in place for either intervening in or stopping genocidal atrocities once they begin, and of apprehending, prosecuting, and punishing the perpetrators. Certainly the conceptual framework exists in international law and in popular moral discourse for identifying genocidal possibilities or attempts at genocide. Only a persistent global will needs to be present to make these mechanisms a reality.

Century of Genocide: Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Reviews (review)

Book Reviews .> ;'. ~t. 125 Along with Howe's own words, it should be the place from which future work on Irving Howe begins. Alexander Bloom Professor of American History Wheaton College Century ofGenocide: Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Reviews, edited by Samuel Totten, William S. Parsons, and Israel W. Charny. New York and London: Garland Publishing, 1997. 488 pp. $24.95. This edited volume comprises brief analyses and overviews including pertinent eyewitness accounts offourteen cases ofgenocide and mass destruction. Israel W. Charny, Executive Director of the Jerusalem-based Institute on the Holocaust and Genocide, wrote the Foreword, while Samuel Totten, Professor of Curriculum and Instruction at the University of Arkansas at Fayetteville, and William S. Parsons, Chief of Staff for the United States HolocaustMemorial Museum, wrote the Introduction. Charny, Totten, and Parsons are scholars and veteran activists. For over a decade they have made significant contributions to the literature on the understanding and prevention of genocide. Among the contributors and their topics are Jon Bridgman and Leslie J. Worley on the Hereros of South West Africa (1904), Rouben P. Adalian on the Armenian Genocide (1915-1923), James P. Mace on mass starvation in the Ukraine during the Stalinist collectivization period (1932-1933), Lyman H. Legters on the deportation and destruction ofsoviet nationalities, Donald L. Niewyk on the Holocaust ofthe" European Jews (1933-1945), Sybil Milton on the Holocaust ofthe Gypsies (1933-1945), Hugh Gregory Gallagher on the Nazi "euthanasia" campaign against disabled persons (19391945 ), Robert Cribb on the Indonesian massacres (1965-1966), Ben Kiernan on Cambodia (1975-1979), Robert K. Hitchcock and Tara M. Twedt on the physical and cultural destruction of indigenous peoples, and Steven L. Burg, in an Afterword on Bosnia-Herzegovina, on the link between genocide and ethnic war. The scholarly and analytical contributions vary in scope and quality, as might be expected from an edited volume; nevertheless, for the most part they are informative and of high quality. Moreover, acting on their stated moral commitment to define genocide widely, the editors have included instances such as killing ofthe Hereros, the deportations ofSoviet nationalities, and the destruction of indigenous peoples that are often left out of discussions on genocide. The intent of this volume is not to make spurious equation between instances ofgenocide where millions died and others where fewer perished. The explicit aim is to stretch the borders of our understanding of 126 SHOFAR Winter 2000 Vol. 18, NO.2 genocide and ofour empathy for its victims. Besides the broad scope ofthe cases, what distinguishes this edited volume from some other recent contributions is the inclusion of eyewitness testimonies. This gives each case an immediacy and credibility that the scholarly analysis alone cannot match. In that sense the volume reaches beyond the narrow confines ofthe scholarly community to a wider community ofreaders, including students. Had there been a more extensive discussion ofthe analytic meaning ofterms, this volume could have made a stronger contribution to the scholarly and legal literature on genocide, but that was not its intent. Although comparative studies ofthe perpetrators of genocide and their motives do exist, there are precious few studies that include eyewitness accounts ofthe victims. For their discerning selections of case studies and for including eyewitness accounts of victims and bystanders we should be grateful to the editors. Robert Melson Department of Political Science Purdue University From a Ruined Garden: The Memorial Books ofPolish Jewry, edited and translated by Jack Kugelmass and Jonathan Boyarin. 2nd expanded ed., with geographical index and bibliography by Zachary M. Baker. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, published in association with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 1998. 353 pp. $39.95 (c); $17.95 (p). Rarely is a book published that causes an entirely new genre ofstudies to open up. This, however, was the result ofthe remarkably fortunate publication by Schocken Books of the first edition in 1983 of From a Ruined Garden. Before 1983, some scholars, librarians, and genealogical researchers certainly knew about yizker bikher in general, but up to that time there had not been a major focus on these books as social, historical, and genealogical sources offirsthand knowledge about destroyed communities, to some extent because of language barriers. But as more lay persons began searching...

The Historikerstreit: Uniqueness and Comparability of the Holocaust

A critical analysis of the public debate among German historians, philosophers and other intellectuals in the mid-1980s about the uniqueness or comparability of the Holocaust in relation to other instances of genocide.

Historical Roots of International Concern and Action In The Field Of Crime

Although the Biblical story of creation opens with transgression by our first parents, one of whose two sons slew the other (the first instance of genocide?), the world had to wait several millennia before international attention was centered on the understanding of criminal phenomena. This year marks the 150th anniversary of the first international gathering to ponder the extent, causes and the most propitious methods of dealing with crime. Since 1835 there have been more than 100 international gatherings attended by thousands of participants who presented papers, listened to reports and argued over the same basic problems that bedevil us today. There is hardly an innovative program in criminology which has not drawn from the experience and the contributions of many nations and many cultures: probation, juvenile courts, fingerprinting, the rise of the penitentiary and the reformatory, parole, correctional staff training, the role of psychology and psychiatry, sentencing, prevention of crime, community al...