Insemination Techniques Research Articles

Extenders for alpaca epididymal spermatozoa: Comparison of INRA96 and andromed

Artificial insemination would be a useful technique for alpaca breeders to use as an aid to breeding to increase fleece quality. The technique, however, is not well developed in alpacas, partly because of the viscous nature of their seminal plasma. Castration conducted for husbandry purposes can provide a source of epididymal spermatozoa to test semen extenders or handling regimens, thus circumventing the problem of the viscous ejaculate. In this experiment, two semen extenders (Andromed and INRA96) developed for other species (bovine and equine, respectively) were tested with alpaca spermatozoa derived from the cauda epididymis. Sperm total motility (mean ± SEM A: 29.1 ± 4.8 % compared with I: 35.4 ± 4.8 %; NS), membrane integrity (A: 58 ± 9% compared with I: 56 ± 9%; NS) and acrosome integrity (A: 65 ± 7% compared with I: 54 ± 7%; NS) were not different between the two extenders. Progressive motility with use of INRA96 was greater after incubating for 30 min than after incubating for 10 min (35 ± 4% vs. 12 ± 4%, respectively; P = 0.03). In conclusion, viable epididymal spermatozoa could be extracted from the castrated organs after overnight transport. There were no differences in sperm quality between the two extenders; therefore, it appears that either extender could be used for alpaca spermatozoa. These results could help in the development of a technique for artificial insemination in alpacas.

Advances in gender preselection in swine

Gender preselection using isolated populations of X- and Y-chromosome bearing spermatozoa that have been separated on the basis of DNA content is currently possible in swine and other farm animals, as well as in humans. Semen from most livestock species can now be successfully separated into predominantly X or Y sperm populations before their use for intra-tubal insemination, deep-uterine insemination or for in vitro fertilization (IVF) to produce sexed offspring. Birth of progeny of the desired sex in cattle, sheep and swine under semi-practical conditions has successfully validated the sexing technology. Spermatozoa are separated on the basis of inherent differences in DNA content in the X- and Y-chromosome bearing sperm population using modified flow cytometry /cell sorting technology. Spermatozoa are stained with Hoechst 33342 which binds to the DNA in an amount proportional to the amount of DNA present in the individual spermatozoa. Over 300 animals from various species at several locations have been born using the USDA-Beltsville Sperm Sexing Technology for separating X and Y spermatozoa. Sex ratios are shifted from the normal 50:50 to 85 to 90% of one sex or the other. In swine, offspring have been born as the result of surgical intratubal insemination of separated spermatozoa and also from 11/F and embryo transfer. At the present time, standard swine artificial insemination techniques are not optimized for use with the small numbers of flow cytometrically separated X or Y sperm populations. Cattle, swine and rabbit offspring have been reproduced through the second generation with normal morphology and reproductive function. Numerous improvements have been made in the sexing technology since it was first reported in 1989. Increasing the speed of the sexing process to make the application of the technology available to a larger segment of the livestock industry is paramount, even with insemination technology designed for small numbers of spermatozoa.

Determinants of use of gonadotropin formulations to treat female infertility in an Italian region

Abstract Background Gonadotropins (Gona) are commonly used for infertility treatment in women. They are available as urinary purified extracts (u-Gona) and recombinants (r-Gona). Objectives:We investigated if socio-demographic characteristics of treated women, year of dispensation and type of prescriber may play a role in the choice of a treatment with respect to the other. Methods From administrative healthcare databases, we collected claims of Gona for women, aged 18-45, enrolled in the health care system in the year preceding the first prescription (years 2009-2018). Treatment cycles were defined as a 21-day mobile time window. We identified three groups: u-Gona, r-Gona and treatment with both formulations (m-Gona). To identify determinants, we linked women with the socio-economic position (SEP), a composite deprivation index, based on the 2011 Italian Census data,categorized in 4 levels (high, medium-high, medium-low, low). We associated prescriptions with the type of prescriber, distinguishing between specialists and general practitioners. Results We retrieved 38,598 Gona treatment cycles prescribed to 23,412 women and distributed between formulations as follows: r-Gona 47.4%, u-Gona 26.3% and m-Gona 26.3%. The median age was 38 years for r-Gona and u-Gona, 39 for m-Gona. Comparing the type of prescriber, specialists were more likely to prescribe u-Gona instead of r-Gona (OR: 2.14; 95%CI: 2.02-2.27) than general practitioners. No relation was found between SEP and Gona formulations, except for patients with the highest level who were more likely to be prescribed with r-Gona instead of u-Gona (OR: 1.12; 95%CI: 1.03-1.21). Time trends showed that treatment choices changed over time. Conclusions In the Lazio region, the choice of gonadotropin formulations varied over time and was found to be related to the prescriber and partly to socio-economic position. An analysis of outcomes related to different treatments is under way. Key messages More and more women are using artificial insemination techniques; it is important to monitor fertility drug use patterns and determinants of the choice of a treatment. The use of fertility drugs is a multifactorial phenomenon and a matter of public health interest.

Biosimilar formulations of gonadotropins in a central Italian region: use patterns and time trends

Abstract Background Gonadotropins (Gonas) are hormones that play a central role in the follicular growth of women but also useful in male infertility. Gonas used for infertility treatment in women are available as urinary extracts or recombinants. In 2015, the first biosimilar of follitropin alfa was authorised. Objectives We aimed to evaluate use patterns, temporal and spatial variations of Gonas biosimilar formulations in an central Italian region. Methods From administrative healthcare databases of Lazio region, we extracted prescriptions that have occurred over the years 2015-2019. Gona's use was grouped as treatment with urinary (u) and recombinant (r). Special focus was made on biosimilar r-Gona. Use patterns were investigated with respect to characteristics of the patients treated, time trends, differences among local health units and type of prescribing physician. Results For the study period, we retrieved 136,333 Gona dispensations for 22,325 patients. The 10,927 r-Gona biosimilar dispensations (8.01% of all claims, of which 99.43% Bemfola®, and 0.57% Ovaleap®), were mostly referred to women, aged 18-45 years, (87.11% of all patients). Median age was 37 years for women, 38 for men. Since its authorisation, biosimilar r-Gona steadily gained market from 2015 (0,4% of claims) to 2017 (22,7%) followed by a decrease in 2019 (4,3%). Biosimilars claims are more frequent in treating men (10,8%) than women (6,1%). Most biosimilar prescriptions were issued by general practitioners (86.4%), followed by specialists (10.2%) and others. Biosimilar use patterns varied between different local health units (IQR 3.2%-8,5%). Conclusions In clinical pratice, r-Gona biosimilar dispensation, 8,8% of Gonas. are mostly prescribed from general practitioners and are proportionately more targeted at men than women. Further investigation is needed. Key messages More and more men and women are using artificial insemination techniques; it is important to monitor fertility drug use patterns. In times of savings for the economic system,the use of the biosimilar drugs is of increasing interest.

Effect of rectal temperature on efficiency of artificial insemination and embryo transfer technique in dairy cattle during hot season

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of rectal temperature (RT) as well as artificial insemination (AI) technique on pregnancy rates in Holstein cows and artificial insemination or embryo transfer (ET) techniques in Holstein heifers during summer. The experiments were conducted on five dairy farms in Hungary, where 1 631 data were examined. The RT was measured immediately before reproductive techniques using a digital thermometer. The effects of animal group and month on RT were analysed. The enhancement of RT until September can be seen in heifers, but the highest RT of cows occurred during July. In line with the enhancement of RT the pregnancy rate decreased in all groups; the lowest (cows) and the highest (heifers) value was observed in July. Moderate to high negative coefficients of correlation were detected between rectal temperature and pregnancy rate for particular groups (r = −0.3 – −0.7). More than 92% of ET, 48% and 16% of inseminated heifers and cows were pregnant up to the category of 39.1<sup> </sup>°C of RT, above this it did not change considerably in the inseminated groups. In inseminated animals with RT higher than 39.1 °C significantly higher services per conception could be observed contrary to ET heifers. ET may become a more effective strategy to improve pregnancy success in heifers compared to AI during summer.

Dairy Cattle Cross-breeding in Ethiopia: Challenges and Opportunities: A Review

A dairy cattle crossbreeding has been started in 1930s to improve cow milk production, using exotic breeds such as Holstein Friesian and Jersey to exploit breed complementarities of milk production and reproductive traits. Crossbred cows with 50% to 75% blood level able to produce more milk whereas, reproductive performance has decreased as exotic blood level exceeds beyond 50%. Environment and genotype mismatch, lack of appropriate breeding policy and recording system, poor infrastructure, lack of trained man power, improper use of artificial insemination and low adoption of breeding technologies are some of the constraints of dairy cattle crossbreeding in Ethiopia. Defining the suitable breed and blood level for specific production system, continuous skill updating for artificial insemination technicians and introducing appropriate recording system are the most critical points that should be considered during proposing of cross-breeding program for dairy cattle. The purpose of this review was to look at the challenges and opportunities of dairy cattle crossbreeding programs in Ethiopia.

Artificial Insemination Applications and the Factors Affecting Its Success in Dairy Cattle Enterprises in Yahyalı District of Kayseri Province

Bu çalışmada Kayseri İli Yahyalı ilçesinde soy kütüğüne üye süt sığırcılık işletmelerinde yapılan suni tohumlama uygulamaları, bu uygulamaların başarısı, suni tohumlama uygulamaları sırasında karşılaşılan problemler ve bunlara ait çözüm önerilerinin getirilmesi amaçlandı. Bu çalışma, Kayseri ili Yahyalı ilçesi Damızlık Sığır Yetiştiricileri Birliğine üye 16 süt sığırı işletmesinde yürütüldü. Araştırma materyalini, yetiştiricilerden yüz yüze anket yoluyla elde edilen veriler oluşturmuştur. Çalışmada 16 süt sığırı işletmesi; ilkine buzağılama yaşı (hedef değer; ≤25 ay), buzağılama aralığı (hedef değer;

The role of biotechnology in animal production

Biotechnology in animal production is widely used to increase not only the number of population of livestock animals to meet the requirement for world demand of animal products but also for endangered species to enhance the propagation and sustaining the current levels of biodiversity and genetic diversity. Biotechnologies can affect efficiency of reproduction and therefore also selection programs (artificial insemination, embryo transfer, sexing, cloning and other related techniques), improve determination of genetic values of animal (genetic markers, candidate genes and other related techniques, and biotechnologies can transform artificially the genome at the DNA level such as genetic engineering, gene transfer, and related techniques. The objective of this study was to review the importance of the most common current biotechnologies on animal production and some results that have been implemented in Indonesia.

Efeitos de fatores bioclimáticos no desempenho de fêmeas Brangus e Angus submetidas à Inseminação Artificial em Tempo Fixo (IATF)

A produção de carne depende da eficiência reprodutiva do rebanho de cria, ou seja, de altas taxas de concepção e desmame das fêmeas, e qualidade genética dos produtos gerados. Nos últimos anos, houve um incremento da utilização da técnica de Inseminação Artificial a Tempo Fixo (IATF), como biotecnologia da reprodução visando aumento de eficiência, entretanto, as taxas de concepção obtidas em média não ultrapassam 50%. Vários fatores podem influenciar esses resultados: condição corporal das fêmeas, categoria animal, protocolo de IATF, tipo racial, pelagem e condições ambientais. Neste sentido, o objetivo deste estudo foi verificar o efeito de variáveis climáticas e zootécnicas sobre as taxas de concepção de fêmeas submetidas à IATF no Centro de Pesquisa Iwar Beckmam/Hulha Negra, RS e na Estação Experimental Agronômica da UFRGS em Eldorado do Sul, RS, de 2015 a 2017. Foram avaliadas 531 fêmeas, oito protocolos de IATF e consideradas as variáveis: escore de condição corporal; peso vivo; pelagem; categoria animal e tipo racial. Os dados meteorológicos foram coletados das estações meteorológicas instaladas nos locais de experimento. Visando a determinação das faixas de conforto térmico dos animais foram utilizados os índices: índice de temperatura e umidade-ITH e índice de conforto térmico-ITU. Os dados obtidos foram analisados no programa estatístico JMP (v.13). Entre as variáveis consideradas neste estudo foi encontrado efeito do protocolo aplicado e da condição corporal das fêmeas sobre as taxas de concepção.

Crocodylian conservation and evolution insights from an anatomical and histological examination of phalli from male false gharial (Tomistoma schlegelii).

As wild population threats for the endangered false gharial (Tomistoma schlegelii) persist, conservation breeding programs, including developing semen collection techniques for subsequent artificial insemination, are becoming important species conservation measures. Developing reproductive biology understanding of a species is important to developing best practices and hopefully maximizing reproductive successes. However, information on crocodylians functional copulatory anatomy in general is lacking. To that end, zoological facilities and conservation centres have the exceptional opportunity to contribute new understandings that may not otherwise be attainable regarding crocodylian reproductive anatomy, particularly during routine physical examinations or post-mortem necropsies. Therefore, to better understand T. schlegelii reproductive biology, to contribute knowledge in support of zoo breeding conservation efforts and to contribute to what is known overall about crocodylian reproduction, we investigated phallic anatomy of adult male Tomistoma from two zoological populations, the St. Louis Zoo, USA and Sungai Dusun Wildlife Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia. Here, we present the gross anatomical features and histological analysis of underlying tissue-level details in pursuit of a better understanding of copulatory function and associated gamete transfer mechanisms. While much of the overall Tomistoma phallic morphology and inferred function corresponds to that of other crocodylian species and speaks to conserved aspects of functional anatomy across taxa, species-specific aspects of glans and glans tip morphology are also identified. These novelties are discussed in a general function and overall broader evolutionary contexts.

Animal Biotechnology Roles in Livestock Production

Currently, meat and milk productions are significantly increasing especially in Asia. The supply of these products is vital to people’s health and well-being, whereas the efficiency of beef production appears to be still lower than other meat productions. Improvements in the quality and functionality of their livestock products, as well as their production efficiency, are required for further production. Animal biotechnologies have contributed to genetic improvement, genetic diversity maintenance of domestic animals, etc. Basic animal biotechnologies, such as artificial insemination and embryo transfer, have been well established and applied as powerful tools for genetic improvement of livestock. In the applications of artificial insemination techniques, the use of sexed semen has been now widely spread, and also efforts are also made in the development of the technology using a small amount of sperm. For embryo transfer, several types of vitrification technologies have been applied to improve pregnancy rates and contributed to the international/domestic supply of livestock embryos. Conventional animal biotechnologies, such as in vitro fertilization and intracellular sperm injection, have been applied to not only livestock production and also human-assisted reproductive medicine. For in-vitro production of embryos in domestic animals, currently, oocytes have been collected from medium or large follicles (3-6 mm or larger in diameter) of ovaries. Although the oocytes derived from small follicles (less than 3 mm in diameter) exist more on the surface of ovaries, the developmental competence of the oocytes has been known to be significantly lower than those from medium follicles. If we could improve the competence of oocytes derived from small follicles significantly, we may be able to increase the number of female gamete resources for in vitro embryo production. Also, the development of techniques for producing transgenic and cloned animals has greatly contributed to the creation of pharmaceuticals and organs for xenotransplantation. Recently, furthermore, genome editing technologies, such as combined use of CRISPR/Cas9 and PiggyBac, have been developed and have made it possible to correct specific parts of the genome and introduce mutations by homologous recombination. In this review, I would like to discuss the application and progress of the above biotechnologies, including our recent research results.

Investigating cattle artificial insemination technique on farm

‘Do it yourself’ artificial insemination (DIY AI) is employed on many cattle enterprises in the UK. This requires the client having a number of skills that should be properly assessed when veterinarians are assisting with fertility management on the farm. When analysis of farm data suggest that conception rates are suffering due to AI technique, the process from ‘tank to cow’ needs to be investigated. The areas to be addressed must include oestrus detection, semen storage, handling and thawing of frozen semen, handling of thawed semen and placement of the semen. For the latter a good understanding of the bovine reproductive tract is essential.

Artificial insemination with frozen semen in rabbits in Brazil: first litter reported

Brazilian rabbit breeding plays an important social role through family farming. However, one of the challenges faced is the need for new genetic material from genetically improved rabbits. The artificial insemination (AI) technique in Brazil is restricted to the use of fresh or chilled semen. Hence, this is the first report of the use of frozen semen and live kits in Brazil and probably in Latin America. The aims were to evaluate the commercial viability of frozen rabbit semen in Brazil, ranging from cryopreservation to insemination. Three bucks and three rabbit does of Flemish giant rabbits were used. Semen was collected, evaluated and diluted for freezing with CUNIFreeze. Semen was frozen in a 0.5 mL straw, thawed and then filled in a blue curve rabbit AI sheath with the doe in dorsal position with ovulation induced at the same time with buserelin acetate. The ejaculate volume was 0.8 ± 0.8 mL; the mass motility was 3.3 ± 0.6; and the total motility and vigor after dilution were 65% ± 5 points and 3.7 ± 0.6, respectively. Post-thawed, the motility and vigor were 20% ± 10 and 3,0 ± 0,0, respectively. The pregnancy rate was 66.6% with a litter sizes of 5 and 2 kits. Even with a lower result of litter size compared with refrigerated semen, this report brings a new scenario for rabbit breeding in Brazil, showing that frozen semen is a feasible technique for biobanking and mainly bringing the possibility of imported semen from genetically improved bucks solving inbreeding problems.

Influence of Catheter Type and Tenaculum Use on Intrauterine Insemination Outcome.

BackgroundWe investigated the impact of the choice of catheter type and tenaculum use on pregnancy related out- comes in intrauterine insemination (IUI) treatments.Materials and MethodsA total of 338 consecutive IUI cycles were assessed in this retrospective study. Participants were divided according to the insemination technique - soft catheter (group 1; n=175), firm catheter (group 2; n=100), or tenaculum (group 3; n=63). Clinical, laboratory, semen parameters and pregnancy related outcomes were compared.ResultsDemographic characteristics and laboratory parameters were similar between the groups (P>0.05). The clini- cal pregnancy rate (CPR) was significantly higher in the firm catheter (19%, 19/100) and tenaculum (31.7%, 20/63) groups compared to the soft catheter group (5.1%, 9/175, P<0.001). There were no significant differences between the groups in live birth and miscarriage rates per clinical pregnancy (P>0.05).ConclusionOur findings indicate that the use of a firm catheter or tenaculum for IUI might result in a higher CPR, but might not have a considerable effect on the live birth rate (LBR). Further prospective randomized studies are required to determine the long-term effects of the catheter type or tenaculum use on IUI success.

PSX-12 Comparison of transcervical and intracervical artificial insemination techniques for fixed-time artificial insemination (FTAI) in the goat

Abstract The efficacy of transcervical (TC) and intracervical (IC) semen deposition was evaluated for pregnancy per artificial insemination (P/AI) in a fixed-time artificial insemination (FTAI) program in the goat. Three breeds (Alpine, n = 50, Boer, n = 17 and Spanish n = 20) were synchronized by a Co-synch program and then inseminated by TCAI (n = 52) or a commercial ICAI (RamGo, TecnoGen) technique (n = 35). On d0, the goats received a CIDR insert and a single injection of GnRH. On d12, CIDRs were removed and a single injection of PGF2α was administered, followed seventeen hours by an injection of GnRH. On d14, 49–50 hours post CIDR removal, the does were inseminated with fresh, cooled (4OC) semen. For TCAI, the external os cervix was visualized and the insemination gun inserted. Following manipulation through the cervical rings, semen was deposited in the uterine body. For ICAI, the straw was loaded into a RamGo intracervical catheter (ICC) and mixed with media to increase the volume. The doe was held at 60–70 degrees (head down). The external os cervix was visualized, the tip of the ICC placed in the os cervix and manipulated into the first cervical ring. Semen was deposited intracervically. Pregnancy status was determined on day 30–35 via transrectal ultrasound. No difference in P/AI was noted between the TC or IC technique (45.7 and 30.8 %, respectively). Additionally, no interactive effect on P/AI was found between insemination method and breed. The timing of FTAI did present a significant difference in the P/AI among the breeds. Spanish does demonstrated a lower P/AI than the Boer and Alpine does (10 vs 41.2 and 46 %, respectively). In summary, ICAI requires less technical proficiency and is a practical technique for FTAI in the goat. The P/AI results further demonstrate a need for continued evaluation of the optimal timing of insemination between breeds.

106 Virginia Tech Graduate Extension Scholars program: Artificial insemination course for inmates

Abstract The Graduate Extension Scholar program has the purpose of providing graduate students a unique professional development opportunity to develop high quality outreach programs, where the students actively participate extension and outreach. Weekly seminars are held by the program director and the graduate assistants, where program development and engagement strategies are presented to prepare the scholar. The program has existed since 2014, with 14 scholars participating. The present report is related to a single program during the fall of 2018. An artificial insemination course was taught for inmates with the Virginia Department of Corrections (VDOC). A total of 16 students were taught, being 4 farm employees and 12 inmates from two locations within VDOC. Inmates with minor offenses and good behavior get the opportunity to often work in the prison farms and learn farming as a skill. The objective of the present work was to provide inmates with an extra valuable skill in the farm and improve their work experience. The course was held in the Greenville correction facility for 2 days in the fall of 2018 and consisted of two portions: Hands-on theoretical, and live animal interaction. The theoretical portion was planned to provide students basic knowledge of reproductive anatomy and physiology of the cow, the artificial insemination (AI) technique, and proper semen handling. This portion consisted of a power point presentation and practice of technique on tracts from slaughter animals and simulation of rectal palpation with a mannequin (Breed’n Betsy). During the animal interaction portion of the class, students were able to practice the technique on culled cows and were asked to perform the technique correctly on 3 different animals. At the completion of the program, a survey was performed and all students considered the program positive and claimed to have gained knowledge and become confident with the technique.

Apa dan bagaimana fertilisasi dengan bantuan

Infertility is condition where pregnancy was never took place after 12 months of coitus without contraception. This is a problem of a spouse, since husband and wife has their own contribution in the rate of success of fertility potency of the spouse. Assisted Reproduktive Technology (ART) is medical techniques to help reproductive process in over coming the the impediment of the meeting of a sperm and an ovum that leads to a conception or fertilization. Artificial Insemination technique using husband’s sperm has a long record in helping infertile couple, but its rate of success is merely around 5%. Other technique is GIFT or Gamete Intra-Follopian Transfer, ZIFT or Zygote Intra Follopian Transfer and IVFET or In Vitro Fertilization-Embryo Transfer. The implementation of ART technique with micro manipulation gives hope to improve the rate of succsess, particularly to the infertile couple where husband has poor sperm condition. In 1992 is the milestone where the first pregnancy using ICSI or Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection was published. From that time on, the rate of success is significantly improving The ICSI technique uses only one spermatozoon to fertilize an ovum.

Fertility and Neonatal Outcomes of Freeze-All vs. Fresh Embryo Transfer in Women With Advanced Endometriosis.

Background: Eutopic endometrium from women with endometriosis has functional changes in several aspects, which may largely account for the decrease in the quality of endometrial receptivity. It is of utmost importance to know whether freeze-all strategy can restore optimal receptivity in endometriotic women leading to the better ART outcomes.Methods: Retrospective study involved patients with advanced endometriosis undergoing first embryo transfer cycles during the period from March 2006 to March 2017 at a tertiary care center. After propensity score matching, there were 506 women in the freeze-all group and 255 women in fresh group. Our main outcomes included the rates of implantation, clinical pregnancy, and live birth. Subgroup analyses were performed after stratification by the number of oocytes retrieved and fertilization method. Neonatal outcomes included gestational age and birth weight z-score for singletons and multiple births.Results: In our matched cohort, the implantation, clinical pregnancy and live birth rates were statistically significantly higher in the freeze-all group compared with fresh transfer groups (34.4 vs. 25.5%, 51.8 vs. 38.8%, and 45.3 vs. 31.8%, all P < 0.001, respectively). A more beneficial effect of freeze-all cycles was found in patients who got more than 15 oocytes. Additionally, when ICSI insemination techniques were used to achieve fertilization, the advantage of freeze-all strategy was not obvious. Assessment of 382 babies showed no statistically significant difference in the mode of delivery, sex of live-born, gestational age, unadjusted median birth weight, and z-score between two study groups.Conclusion: Freeze-all strategy is an attractive option to improve the outcomes of ART for women with advanced endometriosis.

Post-cervical compared with cervical insemination in gilts: Reproductive variable assessments

The aim with this study was to compare cervical (CAI; 3 × 109 spermatozoa/90 mL) and post-cervical (PCAI; 1.5 × 109 spermatozoa/45 mL) artificial insemination (AI) techniques for frequency of incidences (unsuccessful or difficult probe passage, backflow, metritis and bleeding), values for reproductive variables and duration of the procedure in gilts. There were 644 gilts (255–270 days old, weighing 150 ± 5 kg) randomly assigned to PCAI (n = 320) and CAI (n = 324) groups. In total, there were 957 and 958 artificial inseminations performed in the CAI and PCAI groups, respectively (2–4 AIs/gilt). The frequency of unsuccessful or difficult PCAI probe passage/AI was 14.6% (140/958), therefore, there was a 85.7% probe passage success/AI rate (818/958). The semen backflow frequency/AI was less with PCAI than CAI (4.3% compared with 8.2%, P < 0.001). With the PCAI group, there were only a few cases of bleeding (11/958: 1.1% /AI) with no difference between the CAI and PCAI groups (P = 0.224). In gilts (n = 72) where there was not passage of the PCAI probe (72/320; 22.5%) there was use of CAI, (M, mixed group). For the CAI, PCAI and M groups, there were similar values for positive pregnancy diagnosis, farrowing rates and prolificacy (P > 0.05). The average duration for AI was shorter in the PCAI (2.34 ± 0.809 min) than CAI (4.77 ± 1.059 min) group, and it was longer in the M group (7.48 ± 2.454 min; P < 0.050). The PCAI procedure, therefore, is recommended for AI of gilts.

Semen preparation techniques for intrauterine insemination.

Semen preparation techniques for assisted reproduction, including intrauterine insemination (IUI), were developed to select the motile morphologically normal spermatozoa. The yield of many motile, morphologically normal spermatozoa might influence treatment choices and therefore outcomes. To compare the effectiveness of three different semen preparation techniques (gradient; swim-up; wash and centrifugation) on clinical outcomes (live birth rate; clinical pregnancy rate) in subfertile couples undergoing IUI. We searched the Cochrane Gynaecology and Fertility Group (CGFG) trials register, CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, Science Direct Database, National Research Register, Biological Abstracts and clinical trial registries in March 2019, and checked references and contacted study authors to identify additional studies. We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) comparing the efficacy in terms of clinical outcomes of semen preparation techniques used for subfertile couples undergoing IUI. We used standard methodological procedures recommended by Cochrane. The primary review outcomes are live birth rate and clinical pregnancy rate per couple. We included seven RCTS in the review; we included six of these, totalling 485 couples, in the meta-analysis. No trials reported the primary outcome of live birth. The evidence was of very low-quality. The main limitations were (unclear) risk of bias, signs of imprecision and inconsistency in results among studies and the small number of studies/participants included.Swim-up versus gradient technique Considering the quality of evidence, we are uncertain whether there was a difference between clinical pregnancy rates (CPR) for swim-up versus a gradient technique (odds ratio (OR) 0.83, 95% CI 0.51 to 1.35; I² = 71%; 4 RCTs, 370 participants; very low-quality evidence). The results suggest that if the chance of pregnancy after the use of a gradient technique is assumed to be 24%, the chance of pregnancy after using the swim-up technique is between 14% and 30%. We are uncertain whether there was a real difference between ongoing pregnancy rates per couple (OR 0.39, 95% CI 0.19 to 0.82; heterogeneity not applicable; 1 RCT, 223 participants; very low-quality evidence). Considering the quality of evidence, we are uncertain whether there was a difference between multiple pregnancy rates (MPR) per couple comparing a swim-up versus gradient technique (MPR per couple 0% versus 0%; 1 RCT, 25 participants; very low-quality of evidence). Considering the quality of evidence, we are also uncertain whether there was a difference between miscarriage rates (MR) per couple comparing a swim-up versus gradient technique (OR 0.85, 95% CI 0.28 to 2.59; I² = 44%; 3 RCTs, 330 participants; very low-quality evidence). No studies reported on ectopic pregnancy rate, fetal abnormalities or infection rate.Swim-up versus wash techniqueConsidering the quality of evidence, we are uncertain whether there is a difference in clinical pregnancy rates after a swim-up technique versus wash and centrifugation (OR 0.41, 95% CI 0.15 to 1.13; I² = 55%; 2 RCTs, 78 participants; very low-quality evidence). The results suggest that if the chance of pregnancy after the use of a wash technique is assumed to be 38%, the chance of pregnancy after using the swim-up technique is between 9% and 41%. Considering the quality of evidence, we are uncertain whether there was a difference between multiple pregnancy rates between swim-up technique versus wash technique (OR 0.49, 95% CI 0.02 to 13.28; heterogeneity not applicable; 1 RCT, 26 participants; very low-quality evidence). Miscarriage rate was only reported by one study: no miscarriages were reported in either treatment arm. No studies reported on ongoing pregnancy rate, ectopic pregnancy rate, fetal abnormalities or infection rate.Gradient versus wash techniqueConsidering the quality of evidence, we are uncertain whether there is a difference in clinical pregnancy rates after a gradient versus wash and centrifugation technique (OR 1.78, 95% CI 0.58 to 5.46; I² = 52%; 2 RCTs, 94 participants; very low-quality evidence). The results suggest that if the chance of pregnancy after the use of a wash technique is assumed to be 13%, the chance of pregnancy after using the gradient technique is between 8% and 46%. Considering the quality of evidence, we are uncertain whether there was a difference between multiple pregnancy rates per couple between the treatment groups (OR 0.33, 95% CI 0.01 to 8.83; very low-quality evidence). Considering the quality of evidence, we are also uncertain whether there was a difference between miscarriage rates per couple between the treatment groups (OR 6.11, 95% CI 0.27 to 138.45; very low-quality evidence). No studies reported on ongoing pregnancy rate, ectopic pregnancy rate, fetal abnormalities or infection rate. There is insufficient evidence to recommend any specific semen preparation technique: swim-up versus gradient versus wash and centrifugation technique. No studies reported on live birth rates. Considering the quality of evidence (very low), we are uncertain whether there is a difference in clinical pregnancy rates, ongoing pregnancy rates, multiple pregnancy rates or miscarriage rates per couple) between the three sperm preparation techniques. Further randomised trials are warranted that report live birth data.